The War on Stereotypes: Misconceptions of the Australian Muslim.

Abstract


This essay defines the stereotype of the Australian Muslim and discusses how these representation are shaped. It was found that the government and the media are influential players when creating and reinforcing stereotypical images. Minorities across the globe face prejudice and the faith of Islam is subject to this within Australia. Removing such an inbuilt stereotype requires cooperation and an enhanced education effort.



Introduction


The term stereotype refers to a set of beliefs held about a social group that centre on traits and characteristics deemed to be shared. Stereotypes can also be seen as cognitive frameworks that influence the processing of social information. (Baron, Byrne & Branscombe, 2006, Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). These cognitive structures contain perceptions of knowledge, beliefs and expectations about a particular social group (Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind & Rosselli, 1996). When these stereotypes are shared within a society their consequences escalate as they are seen to impact entire groups of people in a common way (Stangor & Schaller, 1996).


Within the Australian community a number of common stereotypes prevail. These include assumptions about the homosexual community, the indigenous population, image related issues and those from the Islamic part of society. This paper will examine the stereotypes that are often associated with those who are Muslim and the faith that is Islam. The term ‘Islamaphobia’ has been used to describe the victimisation and the isolation that is often felt by Muslims who reside in the West (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). This piece will look at what is involved in the stereotype, the formation and ways in which it could be removed. There are a number of theories and terms that can be associated with this topic and these have been depicted in a concept map.


Stereotypes of Muslims and Islam


Islam is a religion that sets itself around five pillars; 1. Faith, 2. Prayer, 3. The Zakat (donation of 2.5% of ones capital), 4. The fast (Rammadam), 5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. Islam is an Arabic word meaning peace, purity, submission and obedience. In the religious sense, Islam means submission to the will of God and obedience to his law (Ali, 1996). Stereotypical views of this religion include ideas that Muslims are against western democracy and freedom, that the faith oppresses woman (with the hijab or headscarf seen as a key token of this practice), that Muslims are from Middle Eastern countries and that they are promoters of terrorism. These Western perceptions also imply that Muslims are intolerant of other religions and cultures. (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). Generally there is an underlying assumption that Islam is incompatible with ideals of western democracy. Muslims are also depicted as fanatics committed to defeating liberal governments and substituting them with anti-modernist regimes (Aly, 2007).


A main concept associated with the stereotyping of Muslims is that they comprise one uniform group. Anti Arab and Muslim views revolve around a generalized identification with violence and ‘un-Australian’ values (Hage, 2002). Muslims despite their difference have been reduced to one image, denied their individuality, diversity and humanity (Mansouri, 2005).This being said it is important to note that Muslims within Australia stem from a wide variety of different countries and cultures. Countries including Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Indonesia, , Egypt, Albania, Lebanon, and Turkey, illustrating the diverse set of practices that vary between cultures (Poynting, Noble, Tabar & Collins, 2004). The way in which these stereotypes are presented in the Australian community allow for a lack of understanding and contribute to the gathering of negative information and fear provoking images (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).

Stereotypes aside common beliefs and values can be seen between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. These religions are all plentiful in fundamental moral and social principles from which powerful teachings of ethics and justice can be drawn (Saikal, 2003). The Qur’an states, “0 ye who believe, be upright for god, witness injustice, and let not hatred of a people cause you to be unjust. Be just, that is closer to piety” (Ali, 1996). This illustrates that Islam, like Christianity places a focus on justice and respect for others.


These common stereotypes and misunderstandings were seen in a youtube clip “What do BC students know about Islam?” (Porter, 2007). Student replies to a set of questions demonstrate common stereotypes in the community. Ideas of the Middle East and oppression of woman were dominant in answers. Similar results were found when a small word association task was completed using Australian university students. Results indicated these stereotypes were clearly held within the Australian educated community. Both studies focus on a small sample of college age students so generalisability should not be assumed, however results concur with previous data.


The formation of Stereotypes


These stereotypes in Australia trace back prior to 1912 when Malay pearlers and Afghans were depicted as unclean and a threat to white women (Aly, 2007). In the 1970s Muslim migrants were seen as sexist, violent and backward with an association between Islam and extremism also forming (Aly, 2007,Mansouri, 2005). In Australia in the 1980s and 1990s the media shed a negative light on the religion. There was a focus on genital mutilation in Africa, honour killings, human rights and the role of women in Islam. These conceptions greatly escalated during the gulf war. Since these times the Islamic religion has become a marker of identity in the media especially since September 11(Aly, 2007).


In general stereotypes stem from factors including prejudice, competition, ignorance, oppression and heuristics (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008, Carr, 2003). Social categorisation (us/them mentality), group think, social perception and social learning theory can all also be implicated in the formation of the Muslim stereotype (Carr, 2003).


The Australian media can be seen as an influential social agent with the poetential to shape community perceptions. It has a particular impact on minority groups by exposing them to pressures by implying that they embody ‘alien’ characteristics which are not concurrent with Australian values (Akbarazadeh &Smith, 2005). The Language used by the media often negatively frames stories (e.g. ‘Islamic terrorism’, ‘Muslim fanatics’) to be representative of all Muslims. This use of language has contributed to the formation of the stereotype that is commonly held within the Australian community (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).

How Stereotypes are maintained


Within Australia Muslim stereotypes are maintained primarily through the portrayal in the media and by the current governments stance. This creates a group think scenario which leads to social categorisation (Mansouri, 2005). The concpet of the ‘Arab other’ can be seen as implicit in contemporary Australian political discourse and media representations (Poynting, Noble, Tabar & Collins 2004). Examples in which these notions have been seen include the Tampa boat crisis and the suggested banning of headscarves in Australian schools (Aly, 2007). The governments representation of asylum seekers and the way in which the media focuses on by how the asylum seekers arrive instead of what the asylum seekers are fleeing also contribute to the misconceptions ( Poynting, et al, 2004). The Australian government appears to have blurred the line between middle east, Muslim and terrorist which heavily impact the way in which Muslims (and those of Middle Eastern appearance) are viewed (Mansouri, 2005).


In today’s society a major component in the development and transmission of stereotypes is the mass media (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). In particular the way in which use of ‘Islam’ and‘Muslim’ have been used as adjectives in reports implying that Islam sanctions terrorism (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). In a 2005 study by Arbarazadeh and Smith the Herald Sun was found to have recurrent stereotyping and negative reporting on topics involving Muslims. This negative theme was apparent in a quarter of articles reviewed. This study illustrates that mainstream media is in fact engaging in maintaining the stereotype of Muslims in Australian society by using religion as a primary marker of identity (Aly, 2007).

Breaking down Stereotypes


Changing the stereotype associated with Muslims and the Islamic faith requires the Australian community to acknowledge personal and media bias and stigmas. A richer understanding of the diversity of Muslims requires an enhanced education with an emphasis on the West engaging with the Muslims who live in their midst (Yasmeen, 2005). The tragedy that was September 11 poses challenges to both the West and followers of Islam and an understanding based on common human values should derive from such a situation, here in lies the challenge (Saikal, 2003). A multicultural perspective is required if a true understanding of other cultures is to develop (Baron et al, 2006).


Allport’s contact hypothesis offers a theory for how the stereotype could be changed with the position that regular interaction between different groups ( if conducted under favourable conditions) reduces prejudice and feelings of extreme difference (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). In conjunction with this theory the notion of jigsaw classrooms also holds relevance as this cooperative learning technique has shown to reduce feelings of prejudice (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Imam Faizal Abdual Rauf a keen promoter of interfaith dialogue stated that Australia has the opportunity to denounce these stereotypes due to its multicultural nature (ABC, 2005).

The social phenomenon of stereotyping is linked to cognitive processes that have formed out of a lack of understanding and an emphasis on the negative. Peaceful coexistence of past times led to cooperation and tolerance however periods of tension have deteriorated relations (Saikal, 2003). Both the media and the government have demonstrated their influential power in creating the 'Muslim other’. Stereotypes of Muslims are prominent in the Australian community and only through joint initiatives will they stand any chance of changing. Changed views would mean integration and education of cultures.

Word Count: 1485

References

Ali, A.Y. (1996). The meaning of the holy Qur’an: complete translations with selected notes. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust.

Akbarzadeh, S., & Smith, B. (2005). The representation of Islam and Muslims in the media (The Age and Herald Sun Newspapers). Melbourne, Monash University.

Australian Broadcasting Commission. (2005). Compass: The Peacemaker [Videorecording]. Australia: ABC Studios.

Aly, A. (2007). Australian muslim responses to the discourse on terrorism in the Australian popular media. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 42, 27-40.




Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008). Social psychology & Human nature. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.


Baron, R.A., Byrne, D. & Branscombe, N.R. (2006). Social Psychology (11th ed.) Boston: Pearson Education.


Carr, S. C. (2003). Social Psychology: Context, communication and culture. Milton: Wiley & Sons.


Hage, G. (2002). Arab Australians today: Citizenship and belonging. Melbourne: Melbourne University press.


Mansouri, F. (2005). Citizenship, identity and belonging in contemporary Australia .In, Akbarzadeh, S. & Yasmeen, S. (Eds.), Islam and the west: reflections from Australia (pp.149-164) Sydney: UNSW press.


Porter, M. (2007). What do BC students know about Islam? [Video]. Retrieved: August 22nd 2007 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHgQEF9IMzs


Poynting, S., Noble, G., Tabar, P. & Collins, J. (2004). Bin Laden in the suburbs: Criminalising the Arab other. Sydney: Sydney Institute of Criminology.


Saikal, A. (2003). Islam and the west: Conflict or cooperation. New York: Palgrave Macmillion.


Stangor, C. & Schaller, M. (1996). Stereotypes as Individual and collective representations. In Macrae, C.N., Stangor, C. & Hewstone, M. (Eds.), Stereotypes and Stereotyping (pp. 3-40). New York: Guilford Press.


Yasmeen, S. (2005). Islam and the west some reflections. In, Akbarzadeh, S. & Yasmeen, S. (Eds.),Islam and the west: reflections from Australia (pp.165-172). Sydney: UNSW press.

Appendix A

Self Assessment

1. Theory/ Research



I feel that I have used key theoretical literature effectively in my essay. My concept map shows what I see as a good grasp of social psychology terms and theories that are associated with my topic. I think that I could have possibly intertwined the ideas in my concept map more in my essay however I found this difficult due to the word limit.
I wanted to list as much as I could about the topic as I have become very interested and passionate about it and there was just so much that could be said. I felt by displaying my socio psychological variables in my concept map that my understanding was depicted. I would however in the future attempt to make more of a direct link between the two.
I feel that I have a good understanding of all the terms relevant to my topic and that my understanding has been greatly enhanced by the literature I have sourced. I could have reported on more direct research but this was once again hard due to the word limit. This all being said i did put a considerable amount into the research of this assignment and retrieved some useful findings.



2. Written Expression



My readability, whilst new statistics to me show that I could improve my writting. Scores obtained showed a Flesch Kincaird Grade of 12.68 and a Flesch Reading Ease scale of 36.70.

These scores show that I should work on shortening my sentences and think more about my word choice.


My APA is not totally perfect. I have attempted to keep to all conventions required although it was challenging to do so in posting my work online (e.g hangind indent on references). This I believe would require more practice and use of the online system something which I hope to acquire for my second blog.
My concept map is well set out and not too confusing however I think that by posting it earlier in the term I would have benefited from listening to feedback from others. I think some of the branches could be linked together also but I was unsure of how to do this.
The use of headings I find makes it easier to read my piece due to the nature of it being online and the diverse audience that has the potential to read it.
My argument is concise however I would have benefited greatly from more drafts ( which would have generatec more feedback, a main feature of blogging) but I found myself too caught up in the research aspect of the assignment something that I also need to work on before my next blog. The layout of my blog I believe is easy for the reader and I have made a few adjustments that I think enhance this aspect.



3. Online Engagement



I feel that my online engagement was rather high and I have obtained two light bulbs. I feel that I put a lot into the blog assignments and that I regularly added to my blog and contributed to others throughout the semester and did not just do this all at the end in an attempt to gain credit. I found that I could have perhaps given more insight to others with my comments and that at times they may appear to be too general I feel that I gained a lot of skills and am becoming more competent and confident in the area of blogging. In the future I think that I would attempt to give more links articles etc to others in an attempt to further help them and be more of a contributor.
Below are links to what I see are my best posts and my best contributions to others work however I think that my blog can be best understood when viewed together.


My Blog
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/what-do-bc-students-know-about-islam.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/more-on-stereotypes.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/compass-peacemaker.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/my-results.html


Comments
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=2424876434122806326&postID=5990554910905843590
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=1400561957215405788&postID=8862871871726026832
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=168370549819021907&postID=7841364566841987160

Appendix B

Hyperlink Web addresses
All accessed 2nd September 2007.

http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/09/final-concept-map.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamophobia
http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/pillars.shtml
http://www.reference.com/search?q=heuristics
http://www.reference.com/search?q=group%20think
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigsaw_Classroom
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_hypothesis
http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/pm-rejects-headscarves-ban/2005/08/29/1125302511538.html

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHgQEF9IMzs