Birds of a feather ;)
Malay Traditional Dress
Sunday, October 28, 2007
"When Opposites Attract and Become the Birds of a Feather"
"Describe and analyse a cross cultural relationship with an individual or group which you are or were involved in from a social psychological perspective. this can be written in the first person"
Introduction
The past two decades have seen significant changes to the cultural dimensions of society . Relationships of a cross cultural nature have risen substantially in friendship, marriage, intimate relationships and families alike (Negy, Shreve, Jenson & Uddin, 2003). A study of American college students found that 66% of participants had been involved in an inter couple of some sort, with a second study reporting that over one quarter of participants had dated interracially (Reiter, Krause & Stirlen, 2005, & Knox, Zusman, Buffington & Hemphill, 200 in Reiter, et al, 2005).Cross cultural can be defined as coming from different races, faiths and cultural backgrounds (Reiter, et al, 2005). The purpose of this paper is to analyse factors that are involved in the forming and maintaining of such relationships and to identify similarities and differences when compared to single culture couples. This essay will examine cross cultural relationships from a social psychological perspective using my own personal experience. The relationship that will be used as the primary case study involves a 23 year old Malaysian male of Muslim faith and a 21 year old Australian female of Catholic faith. The relationship is cross cultural in race, faith and culture aspects.
Relationships are integral in everyday life. We as human social beings are involved in relationships on varying levels from friends, families, partners, work mates to the other extreme of enemies. Across cultures these relationships are apparent however they do sometimes differ in operation and definition (Ecklund, 2007). To examine cross cultural relationships a number of theories and psychology principles need to be considered including theories of attraction, similarity, ethnocentrism, propinquity and cultural competency.
Attraction
Attraction can be defined as any factor that draws people together and has the potential to lead to a more permanent relationship (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). It is a key component to the formation of any relationship and is a factor that pervades all cultures. Whilst we often hypothesise that opposites attract research has demonstrated that similarity is in fact what people are attracted to (Shibazaki, 1998). Being attracted to similarity includes both physical appearance as well as having similar attitudes, values and in the majority of cases race (Feingold, 1988). Studies that have taken place across cultural groups have identified that those from different cultural background are often attracted to much of the same things in terms of appearance, in particular showing a preference for ideal bodies depicted in mass media (Swami et al, 2007). One particular study found that Hispanics, Asians and Caucasians were all consistent in their judgements of attractiveness. All groups were found to prefer a smaller nose, a greater distance between eyes, partners who were sexually mature with larger lower lips and a well groomed appearance (Cunningham, Roberts, Wu & Druen, 1995). Differences were noted however with Asian respondents being more accepting to lower cheekbones and wider cheeks but less positive to sexual maturity. Limitations of the study were noted however as western aesthetics could have influenced responses. More validity would be awarded if the study was replicated in rural settings (Cunningham et al, 1995). Differences in responses to attractiveness across cultures in another study were found to possibly be the result of differences in gender roles in different countries indicating that male attractiveness may vary across culture (Swami et al, 2007).
The self monitoring theory can also be discussed in relation to attraction to similarity (Feingold, 1988). This concept suggests that we change to become more like those we interact with. Those who are high in self monitoring seek to maximise each social situation and therefore adapt their behaviour and aspects of their personality more readily (Gangestad & Synder, 2000). When initially examining these concepts in regards to my relationship on the surface it is hard to see any similarities when we appear and act so differently however on closer inspection these theories are in action to some extent. When interacting with each others families it is fair to say that we both adjust our personalities and nature to the different culture. This includes our use of languages, dress, political opinions, cultural mannerisms such as greetings and general worldly views (see Appendix A). Whilst it is hard to comment on theories of attraction as a lot of it is an unconscious process we both admit to being attracted to specific physical features of one another which coincide with the theories and research results despite our obvious cultural differences and views.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism relates to believing that ones own culture (cultural heritage) is superior to another’s (Derald Wing, 2004). This term also encapsulates judging another from your own cultural point of view and the false assumptions that are made as a result of the incorrect interpretation (Negy et al, 2003). In this sense individuals are conditioned to compare and judge the practices of other groups in relation to their own view of what is normal (Negy, et al, 2003, Derald Wing, 2004). This is a term that relates strongly when examining cross cultural relationships as when two partners have been raised in different backgrounds they both have differing beliefs of what is normal and appropriate. In our relationship this is very apparent in areas such as language and general cultural practices such as eating. Western culture and my family have always dictated to me that I must eat using a knife and fork and that eating without was undignified however in my partners culture eating with your right hand is a typical cultural practice. I also had a number of false assumptions and opinions about Islamic cultures and practices that I had developed from my limited exposure ( media depictions). I strongly felt that my culture was less oppressive and authoritative until experiencing the religion first hand (see Appendix A). Reducing such false ideas is vital in cross cultural relationships as you learn and experiences the ’norms’ of your partners background and improve your cultural competency.
Cultural Competency
Cultural competency refers to the ability to interact efficiently and effectively with those from other cultures(Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). It encompasses increasing knowledge of other cultures and relying less on subconscious frames of reference to analyse, compare and judge (Dason,2007). It has been suggested by Allport and others that such cultural frames of reference are imprinted early in life and continue to develop over the lifespan. Those who are more culturally competent incorporate learnt knowledge instead of relying on their own cultural assumptions to always guide them (Ecklunk, 2007)
Being a part of a cross cultural relationship improves cultural competency immensely. My partner has lived in other western countries before so the learning curve for him was perhaps not as steep however it has only been through repeated exposure and experience from a first hand nature (visiting his family in Malaysia) that I have improved my competency and reduced my ethnocentrism (see Appendix A). With repeated exposure I have increased my familiarity with his culture and therefore are more aware of differences and less quick to judge.
Propinquity
Propinquity is often labelled as the best predictor of a relationship. The term put simply refers to a greater liking for a familiar stimulus.(Lease & Blake, 2005). This was well demonstrated in a cross cultural sense when schools were desegregated which led to an increase in mixed race friendships. The children were able to look beyond race characteristics and further explore similarities and differences that they had with the children from other cultural backgrounds. A study by Lease and Blake (2005), found that children from a majority race who had mixed race friendships were both more popular and displayed more positive behaviour characteristics. Such close proximity with other races and the removing of such barriers has the potential to increase harmony in societies (Dixion, 2006). Other reports however have stated that those involved in cross cultural relationships find that they identify less with their own ethnic group and that they felt that society was less accepting of them, indicating a gain and loss phenomenon (Shibazaki, 1998) (see Appendix A).
Social Exchange Theory
People are motivated to rewards and generally speaking loose interest when costs are involved (Heide, Wathne, Rokkan, 2007). In a relationship context rewards consist of factors such as love and companionship with costs including effort, compromise and risk. From a cross cultural relationship perspective unlike a single culture couple high costs are often applicable. Costs in this sense can include changing vales to meet another culture, separating from family and friends, religious pressure, language difficulties and cultural clashes. It has been found that people in cross cultural relationships exchanged affections at significant levels (Reiter, et al, 2005). In relation to my personal relationship I can see where the costs might at times appear high. My partner has chosen to stay in Australia while the majority of his family reside in Malaysia, I am struggling to learn a new language and cultural greeting practices amongst other things (see Appendix A).
Contact Hypothesis
The contact hypothesis demonstrates a lot about cross cultural relationships and the potential outcomes for such relationships (Dixon, 2006). With the increased globalisation through travel, media and the use of technology such as the internet people are coming into contact with a much wider array of cultures (Reiter et al, 2005). Many younger groups are beginning to engage in cross cultural relationships with an increase in prevalence in the USA (Reiter et al, 2005). This increased contact is reducing negative stigmas and leading to a more diverse and integrated society.
Conclusion
Studies have found that similar levels of relationship satisfaction and attraction can be found between mixed race and single race couples (Shibazaki, 1998). Whilst cross cultural relationships to the eye often appear to be comprised of difference, a certain level of similarity can generally be found. The main exception when comparing cross cultural to single culture would be social exchange theory and the less emphasis on costs and rewards. Many theories can be investigated in relation to these relationships and it can be concluded that those in cross cultural relationships are high self monitors. As the prevalence of such relationships increase in all sectors more research should be pursued to compare couples and identify key links to theories.
Images
Word Count: 1615 (withour headings and references)
References
Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008) Social psychology and human nature (1st ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Cunningham, M.R., Roberts, A.R., Barbee, A.P., Druen, P.B. & Wu, C.H. (1995). ‘Their ideas of beauty are on the whole, the same as ours’. Consistency and variability in the cross cultural perception of female physical attractiveness. Jounral of Personality and Social Psychology,2, 261-279.
Dason, P.R. (2007). Review of culture and competence: Context of life success. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 531-532.
Derald Wing, S. (2004). Whiteness and ethnocentric monoculturalism: making the ‘invisible’ visible. American Psychologist, 59, 761-769.
Dixon, J. (2007). Intergroup contact and attitudes toward the principle and practice of racial equity. Psychological Science, 18, 867-872..
Dixon, J.C. (2006). The ties that bind and those that don’t: Toward reconciling group threat and contact theories of prejudice. Social Forces, 84, 2179-2204
Ecklunk, K. (2007). Toward cultural competence in child intake assessment. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38, 356-362.
Feingold, A. (1988). Matching for attractiveness in romantic partners and same sex friends: A meta-analysis and theoretical critique. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 226-235.
Gangestad, S.W. & Synder, M. (2000). Self-monitoring: Appraisal and reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 530-555.
Heide, J.B., Wathne, K.H. & Rokkan, A, I. (2007). Interfirm monitoring, social contracts and relationship outcomes. Journal of Marketing Research, 44, 425-433.
Lease, A.M. & Blake, J.J. (2005). A comparison of majority race children with and without a minority race friend. Social development, 14, 20-41.
Negy, C., Shreve, T.L., jenson, B.J. & Uddin, N. (2003). Ethnic identity; self esteem and ethnocentrism: A study of social identity versus multicultural theory of development. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority psychology, 9, 332-344.
Reiter, M.D., Krause, J.M., Stirlen, A. (2005). Inter-couple dating on a college campus. College Student Journal, 39, 449-554.
Shibazaki, K. (1998). When birds of a feather flock together: A preliminary comparison of intra ethnic and inter ethnic dating relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 248-256.
Swami, V., Smith, J., Tsiokris, A., Georgiades, C., Sangareau, Y., Tovee, M.J. & Furnham, A. (2007). Male physical attractiveness in Britain and Greece: A cross cultural study. The Journal of Social Psychology, 147, 15-26.
Appendix A
Further examples
Attraction Similarity - Different appearance (asian/Caucasian) yet similar body shape, typical dress, same family values, life goals, from similar socio economic backgrounds, same interests, eg Uni, sport,
Self Monitoring - In particular dress and appearance when in Malaysia or around elder Malaysia family members (longer pants and sleeves), no swearing, less demonstration of affection toward one another, level of religious practice demonstrated to different levels when with differing families. Greetings change, when meeting people in austrlaia hand shake or hug perhaps, in Malaysia touching of forehead to an elders hand, two kisses on cheek, less contact with opposite sex
Ethnocentrism - Assumption that families will not be accepting of one another, that Muslim culture will create tension on both parts, beliefs about certain cultural practices such as praying, family interactions, assumptions also about traditions such as weddings and notions of culture shock. All reduced significantly with exposure.
Cultural Competency - language barrier has been reduced, as I learn my partners first language understanding of meanings of traditions eg. For me Ramadan and eid, for my partner Christmas, integration of these beliefs and the sharing of common beliefs in our home, knowledge about cultural history and geography.
Propinquity - With more time spent with each family increased acceptance, understanding and enjoyment of each others culture, given the opportunity to participate in another’s culture not just as a tourist changes perceptions and increases familiarity.
Social Exchange theory - My partner currently is only on a student visa and it could be looked at s a possible cost as initially it was unsure if he was going to be able to stay in austrlai, he on the other hand has had to weigh up staying here with me and returning to his home country with his family, this is a long term ongoing issue that will involve compromise on both sides and seperation from our own cultures and families at different times over the years and course of our relationships, learning of new cultures can be very daunting and upsetting e.g culture shock and could be avoiding if you do not engage in a cross cultural relationship, further costs can be acceptance by your peers, society and family members (e.g putting up with comments and staring etc)
Contact Hypothesis - With repeated exposure and familiarity with one anothers cultures the stereotypical views that we once help have been reduced, a primary example involved whern I first went to Malaysia, it was different to my other overseas trips and at first I was a little un sure but the more time I spent with the family and embraced the culture the more I have enjoyed it and it allows me to accept that at some point I no doubt will be living there for longer periods of time as we both compromise.
Appendix B
Self Assessment
Theory - I have tried to incorporate as many relevant social psychology theories into my work as the word count would allow for. I think that the theories I have chosen incorporate my understanding of the nature of the course and show links with my topic. My topic was harder to write on than I originally anticipated and so I have included theories that relate to relationships in general that are also apparent in cross cultural situations. i would have liked to include my further examples in a table instead of an appendix but had trouble when posting it to my blog.
Research - I have incorporated a lot of research however the university did not have access to a lot of articles that I would have liked to have read. I do feel however that I have an extensive reference list however there is a lot of room for improvement in my use of studies. I was unable to find a lot of studies that I found relevant to my work and that is why I have focused a lot on definitions and how the theories relate to cross cultural relationships. The fact that I was to use my own personal experience also was useful to demonstrate my understanding of the terms and their relationship to the topic.
Written Expression - My written expression was not up to my usual standard as I was pushed for time and did not get the chance to complete another draft before submission. I do however believe that my work is easy to read and clearly set out in an academic way. I think that I have answered the question in a way relevant to social psychology however I thik that my topic could be interpreted in a number of ways and therefore is very broad., this being said I am happy with my my content and the flow of my work. I have adheed to APA format as best i could within the blog format however some formatting was not transfered such as hanging indent when editing my work.
Online Engagement - This I feel is the strength of my work in this subject,. I feel that as with the last blog I was a high contributor to the online community both my making my own post and by contributing to others works. After blog 1 I wanted to increase the level of information I provided to others when commenting on their works and I have done this giving a lot of links and articles. A full list of my contributions can be found on my blog however the post I am most happy with include the quiz that I sent to Michelle which she placed on her blog for others to complete.
I was first to receive 3 stars and I am very happy with my online contributions.
Introduction
The past two decades have seen significant changes to the cultural dimensions of society . Relationships of a cross cultural nature have risen substantially in friendship, marriage, intimate relationships and families alike (Negy, Shreve, Jenson & Uddin, 2003). A study of American college students found that 66% of participants had been involved in an inter couple of some sort, with a second study reporting that over one quarter of participants had dated interracially (Reiter, Krause & Stirlen, 2005, & Knox, Zusman, Buffington & Hemphill, 200 in Reiter, et al, 2005).Cross cultural can be defined as coming from different races, faiths and cultural backgrounds (Reiter, et al, 2005). The purpose of this paper is to analyse factors that are involved in the forming and maintaining of such relationships and to identify similarities and differences when compared to single culture couples. This essay will examine cross cultural relationships from a social psychological perspective using my own personal experience. The relationship that will be used as the primary case study involves a 23 year old Malaysian male of Muslim faith and a 21 year old Australian female of Catholic faith. The relationship is cross cultural in race, faith and culture aspects.
Relationships are integral in everyday life. We as human social beings are involved in relationships on varying levels from friends, families, partners, work mates to the other extreme of enemies. Across cultures these relationships are apparent however they do sometimes differ in operation and definition (Ecklund, 2007). To examine cross cultural relationships a number of theories and psychology principles need to be considered including theories of attraction, similarity, ethnocentrism, propinquity and cultural competency.
Attraction
Attraction can be defined as any factor that draws people together and has the potential to lead to a more permanent relationship (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). It is a key component to the formation of any relationship and is a factor that pervades all cultures. Whilst we often hypothesise that opposites attract research has demonstrated that similarity is in fact what people are attracted to (Shibazaki, 1998). Being attracted to similarity includes both physical appearance as well as having similar attitudes, values and in the majority of cases race (Feingold, 1988). Studies that have taken place across cultural groups have identified that those from different cultural background are often attracted to much of the same things in terms of appearance, in particular showing a preference for ideal bodies depicted in mass media (Swami et al, 2007). One particular study found that Hispanics, Asians and Caucasians were all consistent in their judgements of attractiveness. All groups were found to prefer a smaller nose, a greater distance between eyes, partners who were sexually mature with larger lower lips and a well groomed appearance (Cunningham, Roberts, Wu & Druen, 1995). Differences were noted however with Asian respondents being more accepting to lower cheekbones and wider cheeks but less positive to sexual maturity. Limitations of the study were noted however as western aesthetics could have influenced responses. More validity would be awarded if the study was replicated in rural settings (Cunningham et al, 1995). Differences in responses to attractiveness across cultures in another study were found to possibly be the result of differences in gender roles in different countries indicating that male attractiveness may vary across culture (Swami et al, 2007).
The self monitoring theory can also be discussed in relation to attraction to similarity (Feingold, 1988). This concept suggests that we change to become more like those we interact with. Those who are high in self monitoring seek to maximise each social situation and therefore adapt their behaviour and aspects of their personality more readily (Gangestad & Synder, 2000). When initially examining these concepts in regards to my relationship on the surface it is hard to see any similarities when we appear and act so differently however on closer inspection these theories are in action to some extent. When interacting with each others families it is fair to say that we both adjust our personalities and nature to the different culture. This includes our use of languages, dress, political opinions, cultural mannerisms such as greetings and general worldly views (see Appendix A). Whilst it is hard to comment on theories of attraction as a lot of it is an unconscious process we both admit to being attracted to specific physical features of one another which coincide with the theories and research results despite our obvious cultural differences and views.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism relates to believing that ones own culture (cultural heritage) is superior to another’s (Derald Wing, 2004). This term also encapsulates judging another from your own cultural point of view and the false assumptions that are made as a result of the incorrect interpretation (Negy et al, 2003). In this sense individuals are conditioned to compare and judge the practices of other groups in relation to their own view of what is normal (Negy, et al, 2003, Derald Wing, 2004). This is a term that relates strongly when examining cross cultural relationships as when two partners have been raised in different backgrounds they both have differing beliefs of what is normal and appropriate. In our relationship this is very apparent in areas such as language and general cultural practices such as eating. Western culture and my family have always dictated to me that I must eat using a knife and fork and that eating without was undignified however in my partners culture eating with your right hand is a typical cultural practice. I also had a number of false assumptions and opinions about Islamic cultures and practices that I had developed from my limited exposure ( media depictions). I strongly felt that my culture was less oppressive and authoritative until experiencing the religion first hand (see Appendix A). Reducing such false ideas is vital in cross cultural relationships as you learn and experiences the ’norms’ of your partners background and improve your cultural competency.
Cultural Competency
Cultural competency refers to the ability to interact efficiently and effectively with those from other cultures(Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). It encompasses increasing knowledge of other cultures and relying less on subconscious frames of reference to analyse, compare and judge (Dason,2007). It has been suggested by Allport and others that such cultural frames of reference are imprinted early in life and continue to develop over the lifespan. Those who are more culturally competent incorporate learnt knowledge instead of relying on their own cultural assumptions to always guide them (Ecklunk, 2007)
Being a part of a cross cultural relationship improves cultural competency immensely. My partner has lived in other western countries before so the learning curve for him was perhaps not as steep however it has only been through repeated exposure and experience from a first hand nature (visiting his family in Malaysia) that I have improved my competency and reduced my ethnocentrism (see Appendix A). With repeated exposure I have increased my familiarity with his culture and therefore are more aware of differences and less quick to judge.
Propinquity
Propinquity is often labelled as the best predictor of a relationship. The term put simply refers to a greater liking for a familiar stimulus.(Lease & Blake, 2005). This was well demonstrated in a cross cultural sense when schools were desegregated which led to an increase in mixed race friendships. The children were able to look beyond race characteristics and further explore similarities and differences that they had with the children from other cultural backgrounds. A study by Lease and Blake (2005), found that children from a majority race who had mixed race friendships were both more popular and displayed more positive behaviour characteristics. Such close proximity with other races and the removing of such barriers has the potential to increase harmony in societies (Dixion, 2006). Other reports however have stated that those involved in cross cultural relationships find that they identify less with their own ethnic group and that they felt that society was less accepting of them, indicating a gain and loss phenomenon (Shibazaki, 1998) (see Appendix A).
Social Exchange Theory
People are motivated to rewards and generally speaking loose interest when costs are involved (Heide, Wathne, Rokkan, 2007). In a relationship context rewards consist of factors such as love and companionship with costs including effort, compromise and risk. From a cross cultural relationship perspective unlike a single culture couple high costs are often applicable. Costs in this sense can include changing vales to meet another culture, separating from family and friends, religious pressure, language difficulties and cultural clashes. It has been found that people in cross cultural relationships exchanged affections at significant levels (Reiter, et al, 2005). In relation to my personal relationship I can see where the costs might at times appear high. My partner has chosen to stay in Australia while the majority of his family reside in Malaysia, I am struggling to learn a new language and cultural greeting practices amongst other things (see Appendix A).
Contact Hypothesis
The contact hypothesis demonstrates a lot about cross cultural relationships and the potential outcomes for such relationships (Dixon, 2006). With the increased globalisation through travel, media and the use of technology such as the internet people are coming into contact with a much wider array of cultures (Reiter et al, 2005). Many younger groups are beginning to engage in cross cultural relationships with an increase in prevalence in the USA (Reiter et al, 2005). This increased contact is reducing negative stigmas and leading to a more diverse and integrated society.
Conclusion
Studies have found that similar levels of relationship satisfaction and attraction can be found between mixed race and single race couples (Shibazaki, 1998). Whilst cross cultural relationships to the eye often appear to be comprised of difference, a certain level of similarity can generally be found. The main exception when comparing cross cultural to single culture would be social exchange theory and the less emphasis on costs and rewards. Many theories can be investigated in relation to these relationships and it can be concluded that those in cross cultural relationships are high self monitors. As the prevalence of such relationships increase in all sectors more research should be pursued to compare couples and identify key links to theories.
Images
Word Count: 1615 (withour headings and references)
References
Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008) Social psychology and human nature (1st ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Cunningham, M.R., Roberts, A.R., Barbee, A.P., Druen, P.B. & Wu, C.H. (1995). ‘Their ideas of beauty are on the whole, the same as ours’. Consistency and variability in the cross cultural perception of female physical attractiveness. Jounral of Personality and Social Psychology,2, 261-279.
Dason, P.R. (2007). Review of culture and competence: Context of life success. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 531-532.
Derald Wing, S. (2004). Whiteness and ethnocentric monoculturalism: making the ‘invisible’ visible. American Psychologist, 59, 761-769.
Dixon, J. (2007). Intergroup contact and attitudes toward the principle and practice of racial equity. Psychological Science, 18, 867-872..
Dixon, J.C. (2006). The ties that bind and those that don’t: Toward reconciling group threat and contact theories of prejudice. Social Forces, 84, 2179-2204
Ecklunk, K. (2007). Toward cultural competence in child intake assessment. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38, 356-362.
Feingold, A. (1988). Matching for attractiveness in romantic partners and same sex friends: A meta-analysis and theoretical critique. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 226-235.
Gangestad, S.W. & Synder, M. (2000). Self-monitoring: Appraisal and reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 530-555.
Heide, J.B., Wathne, K.H. & Rokkan, A, I. (2007). Interfirm monitoring, social contracts and relationship outcomes. Journal of Marketing Research, 44, 425-433.
Lease, A.M. & Blake, J.J. (2005). A comparison of majority race children with and without a minority race friend. Social development, 14, 20-41.
Negy, C., Shreve, T.L., jenson, B.J. & Uddin, N. (2003). Ethnic identity; self esteem and ethnocentrism: A study of social identity versus multicultural theory of development. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority psychology, 9, 332-344.
Reiter, M.D., Krause, J.M., Stirlen, A. (2005). Inter-couple dating on a college campus. College Student Journal, 39, 449-554.
Shibazaki, K. (1998). When birds of a feather flock together: A preliminary comparison of intra ethnic and inter ethnic dating relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 248-256.
Swami, V., Smith, J., Tsiokris, A., Georgiades, C., Sangareau, Y., Tovee, M.J. & Furnham, A. (2007). Male physical attractiveness in Britain and Greece: A cross cultural study. The Journal of Social Psychology, 147, 15-26.
Appendix A
Further examples
Attraction Similarity - Different appearance (asian/Caucasian) yet similar body shape, typical dress, same family values, life goals, from similar socio economic backgrounds, same interests, eg Uni, sport,
Self Monitoring - In particular dress and appearance when in Malaysia or around elder Malaysia family members (longer pants and sleeves), no swearing, less demonstration of affection toward one another, level of religious practice demonstrated to different levels when with differing families. Greetings change, when meeting people in austrlaia hand shake or hug perhaps, in Malaysia touching of forehead to an elders hand, two kisses on cheek, less contact with opposite sex
Ethnocentrism - Assumption that families will not be accepting of one another, that Muslim culture will create tension on both parts, beliefs about certain cultural practices such as praying, family interactions, assumptions also about traditions such as weddings and notions of culture shock. All reduced significantly with exposure.
Cultural Competency - language barrier has been reduced, as I learn my partners first language understanding of meanings of traditions eg. For me Ramadan and eid, for my partner Christmas, integration of these beliefs and the sharing of common beliefs in our home, knowledge about cultural history and geography.
Propinquity - With more time spent with each family increased acceptance, understanding and enjoyment of each others culture, given the opportunity to participate in another’s culture not just as a tourist changes perceptions and increases familiarity.
Social Exchange theory - My partner currently is only on a student visa and it could be looked at s a possible cost as initially it was unsure if he was going to be able to stay in austrlai, he on the other hand has had to weigh up staying here with me and returning to his home country with his family, this is a long term ongoing issue that will involve compromise on both sides and seperation from our own cultures and families at different times over the years and course of our relationships, learning of new cultures can be very daunting and upsetting e.g culture shock and could be avoiding if you do not engage in a cross cultural relationship, further costs can be acceptance by your peers, society and family members (e.g putting up with comments and staring etc)
Contact Hypothesis - With repeated exposure and familiarity with one anothers cultures the stereotypical views that we once help have been reduced, a primary example involved whern I first went to Malaysia, it was different to my other overseas trips and at first I was a little un sure but the more time I spent with the family and embraced the culture the more I have enjoyed it and it allows me to accept that at some point I no doubt will be living there for longer periods of time as we both compromise.
Appendix B
Self Assessment
Theory - I have tried to incorporate as many relevant social psychology theories into my work as the word count would allow for. I think that the theories I have chosen incorporate my understanding of the nature of the course and show links with my topic. My topic was harder to write on than I originally anticipated and so I have included theories that relate to relationships in general that are also apparent in cross cultural situations. i would have liked to include my further examples in a table instead of an appendix but had trouble when posting it to my blog.
Research - I have incorporated a lot of research however the university did not have access to a lot of articles that I would have liked to have read. I do feel however that I have an extensive reference list however there is a lot of room for improvement in my use of studies. I was unable to find a lot of studies that I found relevant to my work and that is why I have focused a lot on definitions and how the theories relate to cross cultural relationships. The fact that I was to use my own personal experience also was useful to demonstrate my understanding of the terms and their relationship to the topic.
Written Expression - My written expression was not up to my usual standard as I was pushed for time and did not get the chance to complete another draft before submission. I do however believe that my work is easy to read and clearly set out in an academic way. I think that I have answered the question in a way relevant to social psychology however I thik that my topic could be interpreted in a number of ways and therefore is very broad., this being said I am happy with my my content and the flow of my work. I have adheed to APA format as best i could within the blog format however some formatting was not transfered such as hanging indent when editing my work.
Online Engagement - This I feel is the strength of my work in this subject,. I feel that as with the last blog I was a high contributor to the online community both my making my own post and by contributing to others works. After blog 1 I wanted to increase the level of information I provided to others when commenting on their works and I have done this giving a lot of links and articles. A full list of my contributions can be found on my blog however the post I am most happy with include the quiz that I sent to Michelle which she placed on her blog for others to complete.
I was first to receive 3 stars and I am very happy with my online contributions.
Wednesday, October 24, 2007
My Plan - Comments PLEASE!!
Hi all,
So after recovering from the exam I was keen this morning to put up the main ideas I have for my blog so far and my plan, my draft is a little rough but i hipe to put it up tomorrow night.
Intro - discuss what relationships are, types, and their differences across cultures, introduce my relationship that will be used as the case study/ primary example for this essay (include basic details about mine and my boyfriends backgrounds in culture and related issues)
Theories
- Similarity/ birds of a feather concepts and associated theory e.g self monitoring
- Attraction/ Views of Attractiveness across cultures
- Ethnocentrism
- Propinquity
- Social Exchange Theory - e.g costs of the relationship such as changing views on religon culture as well as citizenship etc
- Cultural Compentancy - such as understanding cultures and language barriers etc
( all theories I will link to my own relationship and give examples in ways that I think the theory is present (or not) )
Conclusion - More research is needed as these varying types of cross cu;tural relationships form such as families that are made up of parents from different backgrounds etc
Does anyone have any suggestions of any other theories i should use or think that the theories I have suggested are appropriate???
All ideas are welcomed !!!
Beck =)
Monday, October 15, 2007
Social Psych Website Link
hey all,
was doing some research and came across this site for social psychology, it has some links and might be helpful to find some articles and research titles for second blog topics! =)
Monday, October 8, 2007
More on Cross Culture...
I found this cartoon amusing, a bit of time wasting whilst finding infor for blog 2.
This term seems to be racing past and I have enjoyed looking at everyones blogs and its interesting to see the takes that people have on their individual topics. I plan to put up a list of psychosocial variables that I think are involved in cross cultural relationships and a rough outline of what i think my second essay will focus on and I would really appreciate any suggestions or infor that you may have come across or general comments on your own relationships and what you think plays a part
Wednesday, September 26, 2007
Guess Who - Cross Cultural Relationships in pop culture
The you tube clip is the trailer from the movie 'Guess Who' with Ashton Kutcher. This movie is a remake of a film "Guess Who's Coming to dinner. The movie (some of you may have seen it) is an example of of cross cultural relationship in pop culture. The movie whilst comical and exaggerated is some comical relief for my topic and shows some of the problems that couples might face in a light hearted way. I must admit that when I met my boyfriends family and he met mine it went a lot better than this!! The clip shows some of the misconceptions the family have about what their daughters boyfriend is 'supposed' to be like.
Enjoy!
beck =)
Enjoy!
beck =)
Attracted to similarity...But we are totally different???
This weeks lecture dealt with some interesting social psych theories and the notion that birds of a feather flock together, in that people are often attracted to similarity. I found the lecture really interesting and relevant to my topic and I have noticed from reading some other postings that I am not alone.When listening to the idea of the matching hypothesis and that people are generally attracted to similarity i began to think how could this apply to cross cultural relationships in where initial meetings and images may reveal anything but similarity.
I think that this theory is still apparent in cross cultural relations despite the obvious differences in looks and cultural practicies. When examining my own relationship I often think of our many differences in appearance, culture, religion, values etc but when I stop and think about we are similar in so many ways. We both attend university, are from families of similar socio economic background, enjoy the same sort of activities like sports and going out with friends etc..so in fact we might share more values then I originally anticipated.
I also agree that it is true that the longer you are around someone in a relationship the more you each begin to make adaptations which increases your shared traits and beliefs. Espacially when you spend time in one anothers cultural setting and in my case spending time in my partners country changed me in some ways.
Any thoughts????
I also found this article about attraction which I found interesting its called The Rules of Attraction and it re-interates a lot of what was said in the lecture and what has been suggested in the theories. Who knew that love and the forming of relationships was so scientific???
Image from: http://www.sallymaxwellsart.com/birds%20of%20a%20feather.JPG
Monday, September 24, 2007
Australian Values - Cross Cultural Families
I thought that I would make a post on the topical Australian values test and get a feeling for what peoples thoughts on it are. This weeks episode of insight debated the topic and I found a point in the program that I associated with my topic of cross cultural relationships. The episode discussed the values test and also discussed values of migrant families. Children of cross cultural families and children of migrants themselves born in Australia highlighted the differences that are often apparent between parents and children and diffent values that can also be apparent between parents and partners.Whilst watching the program I began to think of how many different value systems there are and how this can be apparent on a small level such as a family let alone the differences that can be found nationally. Children of cross cultural couples are often exposed to a number of cultures, religions, customs and values. A good example I was personally thinking of was the differences in cultures when greeting someone. In western culture generally it is expected that a handshake and introduction take place, in European cultures a kiss on each cheek occurs and in my boyfriends Malaysian culture it is respectful if the younger person touch their head onto the back of the elders hand. ( very confussing for me as many of my close friends are italian, im Australian and bf family Malay, sometimes im not sure where I'm up to).
My point in all this is that I believe that in Australia where there is such a rich diversity of culture it is hard to nominate an exact set of values that are apparent across society when within families (whilst there are common value sets) there are often different values. A few of you have expressed that you are part of a cross cultural family or relationship and I am interested to know if when growing up you were exposed to both cultures and how you feel about this? or conversely if you wish you knew more about one half of your heritage?
More generally do you see any social psychology principles or theories behind the introduction of the Australian values test????
Four Corners ABC
I am rather a big fan of shows like four corners on the ABC which i think report interesting views on hot topics. Last night the program was titled Afghanistan Unveiled and it was both shocking and fascinating to watch. It touched on some great points of the country and the treatment of women. Whilst my last blog was around sterotypes of Islam this doco showed the way that perhaps Islam is viewed in some ways across the globe. Where in fact it is more about the culture of a country. The program also made some good points about the way the country has in fact gone backwards since the war began. George Bush was quoted in stating that because of the war the women in Afghan are free but the poverty remains and the billions of aid are still not seen in their society. The program will be repeated on Tuesday, (see hyperlink for details) and i encourage people to watch.
Image from http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2007/s2038790.htm
Thanks beck
Wednesday, September 19, 2007
Language barriers in cross cultural relationships
Hi all!!
Yesterdays lecture got me thinking as it had a lot of significance to my topic on cross cultural relationships. For those of you who weren't there we were speaking of times when we have had difficulties in communicating. I used an example of when I recently travelled to Malaysia with my boyfriend to meet his extened family and attend a family wedding. On this trip many differences in our culture became apparent and I for the first time felt like a minority. I couldn't always understand what people were saying due to the language barrier and at times this made me feel like a complete idioit as primary aged children were able to happily join in the conversation whilst i sat back thinking 'where do I look' and trying to use my minimal Malay skills to interpret what was going on.
My boyfriend learnt english when he was around 5 and when he first went to kindergarten (in America) he couldn't communicate with the other students his age. The beauty of the story of my boyfriend as a little kid was that despite this language barrier he tells me he was friends with all the other little boys in his class and that they played together during lunch and sat together in class. As time progressed he learnt the language but i was amzed that even without this vital communication skill he was still able to form these cross cultural relationships.
On my trip most of the family can speak english, except my bf's grandmother who whilst also being bi-lingual (malay & chinese) can not speak english. The relationship i formed with her was special to me as whilst we had to rely on others passing on our messages I still felt a connection in the warming presense she gave to me and her body language and gestures. My bf later explained to me that she was really happy about our relationship (being cross cultural) as she herself some 65 years ago had married into a cross cultural relationship. She encoured all her granchildren to pursue inter racial relationships on all levels as she says you have the ability to gain so much even through a friendship of different cultures.
I'm curious to know if anyone feels that despite cultural barriers/ language differences that they have gained in any way by forming a cross cultural relationship?
Or if there is a time when you have had a problem in communicating due to cultural differences?
Beck =)
Tuesday, September 18, 2007
TRUE COLOURS
Hey everyone!
I have been thinking a lot about my second blog topic and i think that tomorrows lecture will be really helpful. There are so many things I think could be discussed in relation to cross cultural relationships of any type and i am just busting with stories from my own relationships and can't wait to write my blog which will be in first peron (hooray!!). I was browsing on youtube tonight finishing off some homework for another subject and i thought that i would see what I could find. I came across this clip which is to the song true colours. The clip is something that the girls in our class will probably smile and get a flutter of the heart over but after reading some of the comments people had posted about it I couldnt resist posting it. Not entirely social psych related although I think the song has a good message, and I was full of smiles after it so take a look.
More to come after tomorrows lecture.
I'd also appreciate hearing from any of you who have suggestions on my topics or just comments in general
Thanks
Beck =)
I have been thinking a lot about my second blog topic and i think that tomorrows lecture will be really helpful. There are so many things I think could be discussed in relation to cross cultural relationships of any type and i am just busting with stories from my own relationships and can't wait to write my blog which will be in first peron (hooray!!). I was browsing on youtube tonight finishing off some homework for another subject and i thought that i would see what I could find. I came across this clip which is to the song true colours. The clip is something that the girls in our class will probably smile and get a flutter of the heart over but after reading some of the comments people had posted about it I couldnt resist posting it. Not entirely social psych related although I think the song has a good message, and I was full of smiles after it so take a look.
More to come after tomorrows lecture.
I'd also appreciate hearing from any of you who have suggestions on my topics or just comments in general
Thanks
Beck =)
Tuesday, September 11, 2007
How Social Psych got me in an argument!!
Yeah it's true, On the weekend while visiting my family I became involved in a heated discussion which I don't think would have taken place had i not be doing this subject. So heres what happend...
My boyfriend and I went down to meet my dad after golf and watch the football on TV for a little while. We were sitting around a table with friends of my dads all in their 50's. My bf was chatting with the friends and I was chatting with my dad. Another man came to the table and I heard him begin to make racist comments towards both my boyfriend and players in the football team. I am not going to repeat what was said however it was enough for me to be assaulted and feel that I needed to say something. To cut a long story short I stated to this man that it is not appropriate in any way or any context for him to make such racial oriented comments and that he should keep his comments to himself. My dad also explained this to the man who after attempting to justify his comments left the table in what I viewed as defeat!!
The point I am trying to make in relation to this subject is that it has taught me so much and this incident really made me realise that. We get so used to hearing these types of racist remarks that we often pretend not hear, laugh them off and turn a blind eye so to speak, something that I would have done on many previous occassions. This time was different, I understood that standing up for others and attempting to break this processes is ok and that it is not right for people to hold such stereotypical views and be allowed to preach them in a public arena within earshot of those who they are speaking off. Maybe I was over the top but I was proud and especially proud of my dad to make such a comment to his peers.
Anyone else feeling that this subject is following them around????
Image from : http://www.cartoonstock.com/newscartoons/cartoonists/jlv/lowres/jlvn696l.jpg
Wednesday, September 5, 2007
Discrimination of Mixed Race Couples
I thought this was an interestng article about the discrimination and racism that people of mixed race backgrounds face when they are involved in a mixed race relationship. The article is written from a british perspective although I believe that the comments made are also apparent in Australian society. As I mentioned I am part of a mixed race couple and if you look at the photo of us below we are clearly from different races. This does get us some very interesting and rude looks from strangers and comments that we laugh off but could cause offence. People are always intrigged by our relationship (friends and strangers alike) and unfortunately we have become used to answering questions about does your family accept her? or what did your parents say when you first said you were dating him? A lot of the time you find these looks and comments are from older generations however this is not always the case. I distinctly remember my elderly grandmothers response of 'well thats what they're doing these days" and i was happy and suprised at her instant acceptance.
My best friend of Australian and english heritage and her boyfriend of African heritage draw a lot of attention and have been subjected to some horrible situations in which racial stereotypes and racists remarks were made.
I am interested to hear if anyone is part of a cross cultural/ inter racial couple and if you feel that you are subjected to looks comments or can think of any particular experience where you felt judged????
Thanks everyone =)
Tuesday, September 4, 2007
Blog Two - Question & Initial Ideas
I know i seem keen but since its the mid semester break and I actually have 5 minutes to spare I thought I would post my new topic and why I choose it.
My topic is Cross Cultural Relationships.
'Describe and analyse a cross cultural relationship with an individual or group which you are or were involved in from a social psychological perspective'
Basically i thought this would be interesting as I'm Australian and my boyfriend is Malaysian, we are opposites in pretty much everyway and I think our different cultures play a part in this. It might be a bit of a challenge to stick to the psychological issues but I am hoping to find some good research and pop culture examples and learn some things along the way... Thought I'd add this photo from when we recently visited malaysia and attended a family wedding. It was my turn to adapt to a new culture and this is us in traditional Malay dress. After I got over the idea that everyone would be wondering why the 'white' girl was all dressed up, I had a really fun time and experienced such a different culture, Ill add some good examples and more pics later on but I think this topic allows me to learn and look at my own personal life and experience in a new way something you dont alway get from assignments...more to come
Sunday, September 2, 2007
The War on Stereotypes: Misconceptions of the Australian Muslim.
Abstract
This essay defines the stereotype of the Australian Muslim and discusses how these representation are shaped. It was found that the government and the media are influential players when creating and reinforcing stereotypical images. Minorities across the globe face prejudice and the faith of Islam is subject to this within Australia. Removing such an inbuilt stereotype requires cooperation and an enhanced education effort.
Introduction
The term stereotype refers to a set of beliefs held about a social group that centre on traits and characteristics deemed to be shared. Stereotypes can also be seen as cognitive frameworks that influence the processing of social information. (Baron, Byrne & Branscombe, 2006, Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). These cognitive structures contain perceptions of knowledge, beliefs and expectations about a particular social group (Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind & Rosselli, 1996). When these stereotypes are shared within a society their consequences escalate as they are seen to impact entire groups of people in a common way (Stangor & Schaller, 1996).
Within the Australian community a number of common stereotypes prevail. These include assumptions about the homosexual community, the indigenous population, image related issues and those from the Islamic part of society. This paper will examine the stereotypes that are often associated with those who are Muslim and the faith that is Islam. The term ‘Islamaphobia’ has been used to describe the victimisation and the isolation that is often felt by Muslims who reside in the West (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). This piece will look at what is involved in the stereotype, the formation and ways in which it could be removed. There are a number of theories and terms that can be associated with this topic and these have been depicted in a concept map.
Stereotypes of Muslims and Islam
Islam is a religion that sets itself around five pillars; 1. Faith, 2. Prayer, 3. The Zakat (donation of 2.5% of ones capital), 4. The fast (Rammadam), 5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. Islam is an Arabic word meaning peace, purity, submission and obedience. In the religious sense, Islam means submission to the will of God and obedience to his law (Ali, 1996). Stereotypical views of this religion include ideas that Muslims are against western democracy and freedom, that the faith oppresses woman (with the hijab or headscarf seen as a key token of this practice), that Muslims are from Middle Eastern countries and that they are promoters of terrorism. These Western perceptions also imply that Muslims are intolerant of other religions and cultures. (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). Generally there is an underlying assumption that Islam is incompatible with ideals of western democracy. Muslims are also depicted as fanatics committed to defeating liberal governments and substituting them with anti-modernist regimes (Aly, 2007).
A main concept associated with the stereotyping of Muslims is that they comprise one uniform group. Anti Arab and Muslim views revolve around a generalized identification with violence and ‘un-Australian’ values (Hage, 2002). Muslims despite their difference have been reduced to one image, denied their individuality, diversity and humanity (Mansouri, 2005).This being said it is important to note that Muslims within Australia stem from a wide variety of different countries and cultures. Countries including Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Indonesia, , Egypt, Albania, Lebanon, and Turkey, illustrating the diverse set of practices that vary between cultures (Poynting, Noble, Tabar & Collins, 2004). The way in which these stereotypes are presented in the Australian community allow for a lack of understanding and contribute to the gathering of negative information and fear provoking images (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).
Stereotypes aside common beliefs and values can be seen between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. These religions are all plentiful in fundamental moral and social principles from which powerful teachings of ethics and justice can be drawn (Saikal, 2003). The Qur’an states, “0 ye who believe, be upright for god, witness injustice, and let not hatred of a people cause you to be unjust. Be just, that is closer to piety” (Ali, 1996). This illustrates that Islam, like Christianity places a focus on justice and respect for others.
These common stereotypes and misunderstandings were seen in a youtube clip “What do BC students know about Islam?” (Porter, 2007). Student replies to a set of questions demonstrate common stereotypes in the community. Ideas of the Middle East and oppression of woman were dominant in answers. Similar results were found when a small word association task was completed using Australian university students. Results indicated these stereotypes were clearly held within the Australian educated community. Both studies focus on a small sample of college age students so generalisability should not be assumed, however results concur with previous data.
The formation of Stereotypes
These stereotypes in Australia trace back prior to 1912 when Malay pearlers and Afghans were depicted as unclean and a threat to white women (Aly, 2007). In the 1970s Muslim migrants were seen as sexist, violent and backward with an association between Islam and extremism also forming (Aly, 2007,Mansouri, 2005). In Australia in the 1980s and 1990s the media shed a negative light on the religion. There was a focus on genital mutilation in Africa, honour killings, human rights and the role of women in Islam. These conceptions greatly escalated during the gulf war. Since these times the Islamic religion has become a marker of identity in the media especially since September 11(Aly, 2007).
In general stereotypes stem from factors including prejudice, competition, ignorance, oppression and heuristics (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008, Carr, 2003). Social categorisation (us/them mentality), group think, social perception and social learning theory can all also be implicated in the formation of the Muslim stereotype (Carr, 2003).
The Australian media can be seen as an influential social agent with the poetential to shape community perceptions. It has a particular impact on minority groups by exposing them to pressures by implying that they embody ‘alien’ characteristics which are not concurrent with Australian values (Akbarazadeh &Smith, 2005). The Language used by the media often negatively frames stories (e.g. ‘Islamic terrorism’, ‘Muslim fanatics’) to be representative of all Muslims. This use of language has contributed to the formation of the stereotype that is commonly held within the Australian community (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).
How Stereotypes are maintained
Within Australia Muslim stereotypes are maintained primarily through the portrayal in the media and by the current governments stance. This creates a group think scenario which leads to social categorisation (Mansouri, 2005). The concpet of the ‘Arab other’ can be seen as implicit in contemporary Australian political discourse and media representations (Poynting, Noble, Tabar & Collins 2004). Examples in which these notions have been seen include the Tampa boat crisis and the suggested banning of headscarves in Australian schools (Aly, 2007). The governments representation of asylum seekers and the way in which the media focuses on by how the asylum seekers arrive instead of what the asylum seekers are fleeing also contribute to the misconceptions ( Poynting, et al, 2004). The Australian government appears to have blurred the line between middle east, Muslim and terrorist which heavily impact the way in which Muslims (and those of Middle Eastern appearance) are viewed (Mansouri, 2005).
In today’s society a major component in the development and transmission of stereotypes is the mass media (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). In particular the way in which use of ‘Islam’ and‘Muslim’ have been used as adjectives in reports implying that Islam sanctions terrorism (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). In a 2005 study by Arbarazadeh and Smith the Herald Sun was found to have recurrent stereotyping and negative reporting on topics involving Muslims. This negative theme was apparent in a quarter of articles reviewed. This study illustrates that mainstream media is in fact engaging in maintaining the stereotype of Muslims in Australian society by using religion as a primary marker of identity (Aly, 2007).
Breaking down Stereotypes
Changing the stereotype associated with Muslims and the Islamic faith requires the Australian community to acknowledge personal and media bias and stigmas. A richer understanding of the diversity of Muslims requires an enhanced education with an emphasis on the West engaging with the Muslims who live in their midst (Yasmeen, 2005). The tragedy that was September 11 poses challenges to both the West and followers of Islam and an understanding based on common human values should derive from such a situation, here in lies the challenge (Saikal, 2003). A multicultural perspective is required if a true understanding of other cultures is to develop (Baron et al, 2006).
Allport’s contact hypothesis offers a theory for how the stereotype could be changed with the position that regular interaction between different groups ( if conducted under favourable conditions) reduces prejudice and feelings of extreme difference (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). In conjunction with this theory the notion of jigsaw classrooms also holds relevance as this cooperative learning technique has shown to reduce feelings of prejudice (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Imam Faizal Abdual Rauf a keen promoter of interfaith dialogue stated that Australia has the opportunity to denounce these stereotypes due to its multicultural nature (ABC, 2005).
The social phenomenon of stereotyping is linked to cognitive processes that have formed out of a lack of understanding and an emphasis on the negative. Peaceful coexistence of past times led to cooperation and tolerance however periods of tension have deteriorated relations (Saikal, 2003). Both the media and the government have demonstrated their influential power in creating the 'Muslim other’. Stereotypes of Muslims are prominent in the Australian community and only through joint initiatives will they stand any chance of changing. Changed views would mean integration and education of cultures.
Aly, A. (2007). Australian muslim responses to the discourse on terrorism in the Australian popular media. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 42, 27-40.
Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008). Social psychology & Human nature. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Baron, R.A., Byrne, D. & Branscombe, N.R. (2006). Social Psychology (11th ed.) Boston: Pearson Education.
Carr, S. C. (2003). Social Psychology: Context, communication and culture. Milton: Wiley & Sons.
Hage, G. (2002). Arab Australians today: Citizenship and belonging. Melbourne: Melbourne University press.
Mansouri, F. (2005). Citizenship, identity and belonging in contemporary Australia .In, Akbarzadeh, S. & Yasmeen, S. (Eds.), Islam and the west: reflections from Australia (pp.149-164) Sydney: UNSW press.
Porter, M. (2007). What do BC students know about Islam? [Video]. Retrieved: August 22nd 2007 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHgQEF9IMzs
Poynting, S., Noble, G., Tabar, P. & Collins, J. (2004). Bin Laden in the suburbs: Criminalising the Arab other. Sydney: Sydney Institute of Criminology.
Saikal, A. (2003). Islam and the west: Conflict or cooperation. New York: Palgrave Macmillion.
Stangor, C. & Schaller, M. (1996). Stereotypes as Individual and collective representations. In Macrae, C.N., Stangor, C. & Hewstone, M. (Eds.), Stereotypes and Stereotyping (pp. 3-40). New York: Guilford Press.
Yasmeen, S. (2005). Islam and the west some reflections. In, Akbarzadeh, S. & Yasmeen, S. (Eds.),Islam and the west: reflections from Australia (pp.165-172). Sydney: UNSW press.
1. Theory/ Research
I feel that I have used key theoretical literature effectively in my essay. My concept map shows what I see as a good grasp of social psychology terms and theories that are associated with my topic. I think that I could have possibly intertwined the ideas in my concept map more in my essay however I found this difficult due to the word limit.
I wanted to list as much as I could about the topic as I have become very interested and passionate about it and there was just so much that could be said. I felt by displaying my socio psychological variables in my concept map that my understanding was depicted. I would however in the future attempt to make more of a direct link between the two.
I feel that I have a good understanding of all the terms relevant to my topic and that my understanding has been greatly enhanced by the literature I have sourced. I could have reported on more direct research but this was once again hard due to the word limit. This all being said i did put a considerable amount into the research of this assignment and retrieved some useful findings.
2. Written Expression
My readability, whilst new statistics to me show that I could improve my writting. Scores obtained showed a Flesch Kincaird Grade of 12.68 and a Flesch Reading Ease scale of 36.70.
These scores show that I should work on shortening my sentences and think more about my word choice.
My APA is not totally perfect. I have attempted to keep to all conventions required although it was challenging to do so in posting my work online (e.g hangind indent on references). This I believe would require more practice and use of the online system something which I hope to acquire for my second blog.
My concept map is well set out and not too confusing however I think that by posting it earlier in the term I would have benefited from listening to feedback from others. I think some of the branches could be linked together also but I was unsure of how to do this.
The use of headings I find makes it easier to read my piece due to the nature of it being online and the diverse audience that has the potential to read it.
My argument is concise however I would have benefited greatly from more drafts ( which would have generatec more feedback, a main feature of blogging) but I found myself too caught up in the research aspect of the assignment something that I also need to work on before my next blog. The layout of my blog I believe is easy for the reader and I have made a few adjustments that I think enhance this aspect.
3. Online Engagement
I feel that my online engagement was rather high and I have obtained two light bulbs. I feel that I put a lot into the blog assignments and that I regularly added to my blog and contributed to others throughout the semester and did not just do this all at the end in an attempt to gain credit. I found that I could have perhaps given more insight to others with my comments and that at times they may appear to be too general I feel that I gained a lot of skills and am becoming more competent and confident in the area of blogging. In the future I think that I would attempt to give more links articles etc to others in an attempt to further help them and be more of a contributor.
Below are links to what I see are my best posts and my best contributions to others work however I think that my blog can be best understood when viewed together.
My Blog
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/what-do-bc-students-know-about-islam.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/more-on-stereotypes.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/compass-peacemaker.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/my-results.html
Comments
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=2424876434122806326&postID=5990554910905843590
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=1400561957215405788&postID=8862871871726026832
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=168370549819021907&postID=7841364566841987160
This essay defines the stereotype of the Australian Muslim and discusses how these representation are shaped. It was found that the government and the media are influential players when creating and reinforcing stereotypical images. Minorities across the globe face prejudice and the faith of Islam is subject to this within Australia. Removing such an inbuilt stereotype requires cooperation and an enhanced education effort.
Introduction
The term stereotype refers to a set of beliefs held about a social group that centre on traits and characteristics deemed to be shared. Stereotypes can also be seen as cognitive frameworks that influence the processing of social information. (Baron, Byrne & Branscombe, 2006, Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). These cognitive structures contain perceptions of knowledge, beliefs and expectations about a particular social group (Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind & Rosselli, 1996). When these stereotypes are shared within a society their consequences escalate as they are seen to impact entire groups of people in a common way (Stangor & Schaller, 1996).
Within the Australian community a number of common stereotypes prevail. These include assumptions about the homosexual community, the indigenous population, image related issues and those from the Islamic part of society. This paper will examine the stereotypes that are often associated with those who are Muslim and the faith that is Islam. The term ‘Islamaphobia’ has been used to describe the victimisation and the isolation that is often felt by Muslims who reside in the West (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). This piece will look at what is involved in the stereotype, the formation and ways in which it could be removed. There are a number of theories and terms that can be associated with this topic and these have been depicted in a concept map.
Stereotypes of Muslims and Islam
Islam is a religion that sets itself around five pillars; 1. Faith, 2. Prayer, 3. The Zakat (donation of 2.5% of ones capital), 4. The fast (Rammadam), 5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. Islam is an Arabic word meaning peace, purity, submission and obedience. In the religious sense, Islam means submission to the will of God and obedience to his law (Ali, 1996). Stereotypical views of this religion include ideas that Muslims are against western democracy and freedom, that the faith oppresses woman (with the hijab or headscarf seen as a key token of this practice), that Muslims are from Middle Eastern countries and that they are promoters of terrorism. These Western perceptions also imply that Muslims are intolerant of other religions and cultures. (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). Generally there is an underlying assumption that Islam is incompatible with ideals of western democracy. Muslims are also depicted as fanatics committed to defeating liberal governments and substituting them with anti-modernist regimes (Aly, 2007).
A main concept associated with the stereotyping of Muslims is that they comprise one uniform group. Anti Arab and Muslim views revolve around a generalized identification with violence and ‘un-Australian’ values (Hage, 2002). Muslims despite their difference have been reduced to one image, denied their individuality, diversity and humanity (Mansouri, 2005).This being said it is important to note that Muslims within Australia stem from a wide variety of different countries and cultures. Countries including Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Indonesia, , Egypt, Albania, Lebanon, and Turkey, illustrating the diverse set of practices that vary between cultures (Poynting, Noble, Tabar & Collins, 2004). The way in which these stereotypes are presented in the Australian community allow for a lack of understanding and contribute to the gathering of negative information and fear provoking images (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).
Stereotypes aside common beliefs and values can be seen between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. These religions are all plentiful in fundamental moral and social principles from which powerful teachings of ethics and justice can be drawn (Saikal, 2003). The Qur’an states, “0 ye who believe, be upright for god, witness injustice, and let not hatred of a people cause you to be unjust. Be just, that is closer to piety” (Ali, 1996). This illustrates that Islam, like Christianity places a focus on justice and respect for others.
These common stereotypes and misunderstandings were seen in a youtube clip “What do BC students know about Islam?” (Porter, 2007). Student replies to a set of questions demonstrate common stereotypes in the community. Ideas of the Middle East and oppression of woman were dominant in answers. Similar results were found when a small word association task was completed using Australian university students. Results indicated these stereotypes were clearly held within the Australian educated community. Both studies focus on a small sample of college age students so generalisability should not be assumed, however results concur with previous data.
The formation of Stereotypes
These stereotypes in Australia trace back prior to 1912 when Malay pearlers and Afghans were depicted as unclean and a threat to white women (Aly, 2007). In the 1970s Muslim migrants were seen as sexist, violent and backward with an association between Islam and extremism also forming (Aly, 2007,Mansouri, 2005). In Australia in the 1980s and 1990s the media shed a negative light on the religion. There was a focus on genital mutilation in Africa, honour killings, human rights and the role of women in Islam. These conceptions greatly escalated during the gulf war. Since these times the Islamic religion has become a marker of identity in the media especially since September 11(Aly, 2007).
In general stereotypes stem from factors including prejudice, competition, ignorance, oppression and heuristics (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008, Carr, 2003). Social categorisation (us/them mentality), group think, social perception and social learning theory can all also be implicated in the formation of the Muslim stereotype (Carr, 2003).
The Australian media can be seen as an influential social agent with the poetential to shape community perceptions. It has a particular impact on minority groups by exposing them to pressures by implying that they embody ‘alien’ characteristics which are not concurrent with Australian values (Akbarazadeh &Smith, 2005). The Language used by the media often negatively frames stories (e.g. ‘Islamic terrorism’, ‘Muslim fanatics’) to be representative of all Muslims. This use of language has contributed to the formation of the stereotype that is commonly held within the Australian community (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).
How Stereotypes are maintained
Within Australia Muslim stereotypes are maintained primarily through the portrayal in the media and by the current governments stance. This creates a group think scenario which leads to social categorisation (Mansouri, 2005). The concpet of the ‘Arab other’ can be seen as implicit in contemporary Australian political discourse and media representations (Poynting, Noble, Tabar & Collins 2004). Examples in which these notions have been seen include the Tampa boat crisis and the suggested banning of headscarves in Australian schools (Aly, 2007). The governments representation of asylum seekers and the way in which the media focuses on by how the asylum seekers arrive instead of what the asylum seekers are fleeing also contribute to the misconceptions ( Poynting, et al, 2004). The Australian government appears to have blurred the line between middle east, Muslim and terrorist which heavily impact the way in which Muslims (and those of Middle Eastern appearance) are viewed (Mansouri, 2005).
In today’s society a major component in the development and transmission of stereotypes is the mass media (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). In particular the way in which use of ‘Islam’ and‘Muslim’ have been used as adjectives in reports implying that Islam sanctions terrorism (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). In a 2005 study by Arbarazadeh and Smith the Herald Sun was found to have recurrent stereotyping and negative reporting on topics involving Muslims. This negative theme was apparent in a quarter of articles reviewed. This study illustrates that mainstream media is in fact engaging in maintaining the stereotype of Muslims in Australian society by using religion as a primary marker of identity (Aly, 2007).
Breaking down Stereotypes
Changing the stereotype associated with Muslims and the Islamic faith requires the Australian community to acknowledge personal and media bias and stigmas. A richer understanding of the diversity of Muslims requires an enhanced education with an emphasis on the West engaging with the Muslims who live in their midst (Yasmeen, 2005). The tragedy that was September 11 poses challenges to both the West and followers of Islam and an understanding based on common human values should derive from such a situation, here in lies the challenge (Saikal, 2003). A multicultural perspective is required if a true understanding of other cultures is to develop (Baron et al, 2006).
Allport’s contact hypothesis offers a theory for how the stereotype could be changed with the position that regular interaction between different groups ( if conducted under favourable conditions) reduces prejudice and feelings of extreme difference (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). In conjunction with this theory the notion of jigsaw classrooms also holds relevance as this cooperative learning technique has shown to reduce feelings of prejudice (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Imam Faizal Abdual Rauf a keen promoter of interfaith dialogue stated that Australia has the opportunity to denounce these stereotypes due to its multicultural nature (ABC, 2005).
The social phenomenon of stereotyping is linked to cognitive processes that have formed out of a lack of understanding and an emphasis on the negative. Peaceful coexistence of past times led to cooperation and tolerance however periods of tension have deteriorated relations (Saikal, 2003). Both the media and the government have demonstrated their influential power in creating the 'Muslim other’. Stereotypes of Muslims are prominent in the Australian community and only through joint initiatives will they stand any chance of changing. Changed views would mean integration and education of cultures.
Word Count: 1485
References
Ali, A.Y. (1996). The meaning of the holy Qur’an: complete translations with selected notes. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust.
Akbarzadeh, S., & Smith, B. (2005). The representation of Islam and Muslims in the media (The Age and Herald Sun Newspapers). Melbourne, Monash University.
Australian Broadcasting Commission. (2005). Compass: The Peacemaker [Videorecording]. Australia: ABC Studios.
Aly, A. (2007). Australian muslim responses to the discourse on terrorism in the Australian popular media. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 42, 27-40.
Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008). Social psychology & Human nature. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Baron, R.A., Byrne, D. & Branscombe, N.R. (2006). Social Psychology (11th ed.) Boston: Pearson Education.
Carr, S. C. (2003). Social Psychology: Context, communication and culture. Milton: Wiley & Sons.
Hage, G. (2002). Arab Australians today: Citizenship and belonging. Melbourne: Melbourne University press.
Mansouri, F. (2005). Citizenship, identity and belonging in contemporary Australia .In, Akbarzadeh, S. & Yasmeen, S. (Eds.), Islam and the west: reflections from Australia (pp.149-164) Sydney: UNSW press.
Porter, M. (2007). What do BC students know about Islam? [Video]. Retrieved: August 22nd 2007 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHgQEF9IMzs
Poynting, S., Noble, G., Tabar, P. & Collins, J. (2004). Bin Laden in the suburbs: Criminalising the Arab other. Sydney: Sydney Institute of Criminology.
Saikal, A. (2003). Islam and the west: Conflict or cooperation. New York: Palgrave Macmillion.
Stangor, C. & Schaller, M. (1996). Stereotypes as Individual and collective representations. In Macrae, C.N., Stangor, C. & Hewstone, M. (Eds.), Stereotypes and Stereotyping (pp. 3-40). New York: Guilford Press.
Yasmeen, S. (2005). Islam and the west some reflections. In, Akbarzadeh, S. & Yasmeen, S. (Eds.),Islam and the west: reflections from Australia (pp.165-172). Sydney: UNSW press.
Appendix A
Self Assessment
1. Theory/ Research
I feel that I have used key theoretical literature effectively in my essay. My concept map shows what I see as a good grasp of social psychology terms and theories that are associated with my topic. I think that I could have possibly intertwined the ideas in my concept map more in my essay however I found this difficult due to the word limit.
I wanted to list as much as I could about the topic as I have become very interested and passionate about it and there was just so much that could be said. I felt by displaying my socio psychological variables in my concept map that my understanding was depicted. I would however in the future attempt to make more of a direct link between the two.
I feel that I have a good understanding of all the terms relevant to my topic and that my understanding has been greatly enhanced by the literature I have sourced. I could have reported on more direct research but this was once again hard due to the word limit. This all being said i did put a considerable amount into the research of this assignment and retrieved some useful findings.
2. Written Expression
My readability, whilst new statistics to me show that I could improve my writting. Scores obtained showed a Flesch Kincaird Grade of 12.68 and a Flesch Reading Ease scale of 36.70.
These scores show that I should work on shortening my sentences and think more about my word choice.
My APA is not totally perfect. I have attempted to keep to all conventions required although it was challenging to do so in posting my work online (e.g hangind indent on references). This I believe would require more practice and use of the online system something which I hope to acquire for my second blog.
My concept map is well set out and not too confusing however I think that by posting it earlier in the term I would have benefited from listening to feedback from others. I think some of the branches could be linked together also but I was unsure of how to do this.
The use of headings I find makes it easier to read my piece due to the nature of it being online and the diverse audience that has the potential to read it.
My argument is concise however I would have benefited greatly from more drafts ( which would have generatec more feedback, a main feature of blogging) but I found myself too caught up in the research aspect of the assignment something that I also need to work on before my next blog. The layout of my blog I believe is easy for the reader and I have made a few adjustments that I think enhance this aspect.
3. Online Engagement
I feel that my online engagement was rather high and I have obtained two light bulbs. I feel that I put a lot into the blog assignments and that I regularly added to my blog and contributed to others throughout the semester and did not just do this all at the end in an attempt to gain credit. I found that I could have perhaps given more insight to others with my comments and that at times they may appear to be too general I feel that I gained a lot of skills and am becoming more competent and confident in the area of blogging. In the future I think that I would attempt to give more links articles etc to others in an attempt to further help them and be more of a contributor.
Below are links to what I see are my best posts and my best contributions to others work however I think that my blog can be best understood when viewed together.
My Blog
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/what-do-bc-students-know-about-islam.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/more-on-stereotypes.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/compass-peacemaker.html
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/my-results.html
Comments
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=2424876434122806326&postID=5990554910905843590
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=1400561957215405788&postID=8862871871726026832
https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=168370549819021907&postID=7841364566841987160
Appendix B
Hyperlink Web addresses
All accessed 2nd September 2007.
All accessed 2nd September 2007.
http://beckpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/09/final-concept-map.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamophobia
http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/pillars.shtml
http://www.reference.com/search?q=heuristics
http://www.reference.com/search?q=group%20think
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigsaw_Classroom
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_hypothesis
http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/pm-rejects-headscarves-ban/2005/08/29/1125302511538.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamophobia
http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/pillars.shtml
http://www.reference.com/search?q=heuristics
http://www.reference.com/search?q=group%20think
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jigsaw_Classroom
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_hypothesis
http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/pm-rejects-headscarves-ban/2005/08/29/1125302511538.html
Blog 1 - Draft
I am still to add abstract, hyperlinks, refernces, conclusion and appendices ( i have been so overwhelmed with info). BUt here is the main idea, let me know what you think
Introduction
The term stereotype refers to a set of beliefs held about a social group that centre on traits and characteristics that they are deemed to share. Stereotypes can also be seen as cognitive frameworks that influence the processing of social information. (Baron, Byrne & Branscombe, 2006, Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). These cognitive structures contain perceptions of knowledge, beliefs and expectations about a particular social group (Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind & Rosselli, 1996). When these stereotypes are shared within a society their consequences escalate as they are seen to impact entire groups of people in a common way (Stangor & Schaller, 1996).
Within the Australian community a number of common stereotypes prevail. These include assumptions about the homosexual community, the indigenous population, those dealing with obesity issues and those from the Islamic part of society. This paper will examine the stereotypes that are often associated with those who are Muslim and the faith that is Islam. The term ‘Islamaphobia’ has been used in recent times to describe the victimisation of this group and the isolation that is often felt by Muslims who reside in the West (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). This piece will look at what is involved in the stereotype, the formation , how it is maintained and ways in which it could be removed. There are a number of theories and terms that can be associated with this topic and these have been depicted in Figure 1.
Stereotypes of Muslims and Islam
slam is a religion that sets itself around five pillars; 1. Faith, 2. Prayer, 3. The Zakat (donation of 2.5% of ones capital), 4. The fast (Rammadam), 5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. Islam is an Arabic word meaning peace, purity, submission and obedience. In the religious sense, Islam means submission to the will of God and obedience to his law (Ali, 1996). Stereotypical views of this religion include the notion that Muslims are against western democracy and freedom, that the faith oppresses woman (with the hijab or headscarf seen as a key token of this practice), that Muslims are from Middle Eastern countries and that they are promoters and followers of terrorism. These Western perceptions also imply that Muslims are intolerant of other religions and cultures. (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). Generally there is an underlying assumption that Islam is backward and incompatible with ideals of western democracy. Muslims are also depicted as fanatics committed to defeating liberal governments and substituting them with anti-modernist regimes (Aly, 2007).
A main concept associated with the stereotyping of Muslims is that they comprise one homogeneous group. Anti Arab and Muslim views revolve around a generalized identification with violence and ‘un-Australian’ values (Hage, 2002). Muslims despite their difference have been reduced to one image being denied their individuality, diversity and humanity (Mansouri, 2005).This being said it is important to note that Muslims within Australia stem from a wide variety of different countries and cultures including Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Indonesia, , Egypt, Albania, Lebanon, and Turkey, illustrating the diverse set of practices that vary between cultures (Poynting et al , 2004). The way in which these stereotypes are presented in the Australian community allow for a lack of understanding and contribute to the gathering of negative information and fear provoking images (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).
Stereotypes aside common beliefs and values can be seen between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. These religions are all plentiful in fundamental moral and social principles from which powerful teachings of ethics and justice can be drawn (Saikal, 2003). The Qur’an states, “0 ye who believe, be upright for god, witness injustice, and let not hatred of a people cause you to be unjust. Be just, that is closer to piety” (Ali, 1996), illustrating that Islam is a religion that like Christianity places a focus on justice and respect for others.
These common stereotypes and misunderstandings were seen in a you tube publication “What do BC students know about Islam?” in which students were asked a set of questions and common stereotypical answers surrounding the middle east and the wearing of the hijab were given. Similar results were found when a small word association task was completed using Australian university students results indicated these stereotypes were clearly held within the Australian educated community
The formation of Stereotypes
These stereotypes whilst appearing to have developed post September 11 actually trace back prior to 1912 when Malay pearlers and Afghans were depicted as unclean and a threat to white women (Aly, 2007). In the 1970s Muslim migrants were seen as sexist, violent and backward with an association between Islam and extremism also forming (Mansouri, 2005, Aly, 2007). In Australia in the 1980s and 1990s the media shed a negative light on the religion with a focus on genital mutilation in Africa, honour killings, human rights and the role of women in Islam. These conceptions greatly escalated during the gulf war. Since these times the Islamic religion has become a marker of identity in the media (Aly, 2007).
In general stereotypes stem from factors such as prejudice, competition, ignorance, oppression and heuristics (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008, Carr, 2003). Social categorisation (us/them mentality), group think, social perception and social learning theory can all be implicated in the formation of the Muslim stereotype (Carr, 2003) (See Figure 1.).
The Australian media can be seen as an influential social agent with the poetential to shape community perceptions. It has a particular impact on minority groups by exposing them to pressures by implying that they embody ‘alien’ characteristics which are not concurrent with Australian values (Akbarazadeh &Smith, 2005). The Language used by the media often negatively frame stories (e.g. ‘Islamic terrorism’, ‘Muslim fanatics’) to be representative of all Muslims. This use of language has contributed to the formation of the stereotype that is commonly held within the Australian community (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).
How Stereotypes are maintained
Within Australia Muslim stereotypes are maintained primarily through the portrayal in the media and by the current governments stance, hence creating a group think scenario which leads to social categorisation (Mansouri, 2005). The concpet of the ‘arab other’ can be seen as implicit in contemporary Australian political discourse and media representations (Poynting, et al, 2004). Examples in which these notions have been seen include the Tampa boat crisis and the attempted banning of headscarves in Australian schools (Aly, 2007). The governments representation of asylum seekers and the way in which the media focuses on by how the asylum seekers arrive instead of what the asylum seekers are actually fleeing from also contribute to the misconceptions ( Poynting, et al, 2004). The Australian government appears to have blurred the line between middle east, Muslim and terrorist which heavily impact the way in which Muslims (and those of Middle Eastern appearance) are viewed (Mansouri, 2005).
In today’s society a major component in the development and transmission of stereotypes is the mass media (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). In particular the way in which use of ‘Islam’ and‘Muslim’ have been used as adjectives in reports implies that Islam sanctions terrorism (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). In a 2005 study by Arbarazadeh and Smith the Herald Sun was found to have recurrent stereotyping and negative reporting on topics involving Muslims. This negative theme was apparent in a quarter of articles reviewed. This study illustrates that mainstream media is in fact engaging in maintaining the stereotype of Muslim in the Australian society by often using religion as a primary marker of identity (Aly, 2007).
Breaking down Stereotypes
Changing the stereotype associated with Muslims and the Islamic faith requires the Australian community to acknowledge personal and media bias and stigmas. A richer understanding of the diversity of Muslims requires an enhanced education with an emphasis on the west engaging with the Muslims who live in their midst (Yasmeen, 2005). The tragedy that was September 11 poses challenges to both the West and followers of Islam and an understanding based on common human values should derive from such a situation, here in lies the challenge (Saikal, 2003). A multicultural perspective is required if a true understanding of other cultures is to develop (Baron, Byrne & Branscombe, 2006).
Allport’s contact hypothesis offers a theory for how the stereotype could be changed with the position that regular interaction between opposing or different groups ( if conducted under favourable conditions) reduces prejudice and feelings of extreme difference (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). In conjunction with this theory the notion of jigsaw classrooms also holds relevance as this cooperative learning technique has also shown to reduce feelings of prejudice (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Islamic leader Imam Faizal Abdual Rauf a keen promotor of interfaith dialogue stated that Australia has the opportunity to denounce these stereotypes due to its multicultural nature (ABC, 2005).
Introduction
The term stereotype refers to a set of beliefs held about a social group that centre on traits and characteristics that they are deemed to share. Stereotypes can also be seen as cognitive frameworks that influence the processing of social information. (Baron, Byrne & Branscombe, 2006, Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). These cognitive structures contain perceptions of knowledge, beliefs and expectations about a particular social group (Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind & Rosselli, 1996). When these stereotypes are shared within a society their consequences escalate as they are seen to impact entire groups of people in a common way (Stangor & Schaller, 1996).
Within the Australian community a number of common stereotypes prevail. These include assumptions about the homosexual community, the indigenous population, those dealing with obesity issues and those from the Islamic part of society. This paper will examine the stereotypes that are often associated with those who are Muslim and the faith that is Islam. The term ‘Islamaphobia’ has been used in recent times to describe the victimisation of this group and the isolation that is often felt by Muslims who reside in the West (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). This piece will look at what is involved in the stereotype, the formation , how it is maintained and ways in which it could be removed. There are a number of theories and terms that can be associated with this topic and these have been depicted in Figure 1.
Stereotypes of Muslims and Islam
slam is a religion that sets itself around five pillars; 1. Faith, 2. Prayer, 3. The Zakat (donation of 2.5% of ones capital), 4. The fast (Rammadam), 5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. Islam is an Arabic word meaning peace, purity, submission and obedience. In the religious sense, Islam means submission to the will of God and obedience to his law (Ali, 1996). Stereotypical views of this religion include the notion that Muslims are against western democracy and freedom, that the faith oppresses woman (with the hijab or headscarf seen as a key token of this practice), that Muslims are from Middle Eastern countries and that they are promoters and followers of terrorism. These Western perceptions also imply that Muslims are intolerant of other religions and cultures. (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). Generally there is an underlying assumption that Islam is backward and incompatible with ideals of western democracy. Muslims are also depicted as fanatics committed to defeating liberal governments and substituting them with anti-modernist regimes (Aly, 2007).
A main concept associated with the stereotyping of Muslims is that they comprise one homogeneous group. Anti Arab and Muslim views revolve around a generalized identification with violence and ‘un-Australian’ values (Hage, 2002). Muslims despite their difference have been reduced to one image being denied their individuality, diversity and humanity (Mansouri, 2005).This being said it is important to note that Muslims within Australia stem from a wide variety of different countries and cultures including Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Indonesia, , Egypt, Albania, Lebanon, and Turkey, illustrating the diverse set of practices that vary between cultures (Poynting et al , 2004). The way in which these stereotypes are presented in the Australian community allow for a lack of understanding and contribute to the gathering of negative information and fear provoking images (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).
Stereotypes aside common beliefs and values can be seen between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. These religions are all plentiful in fundamental moral and social principles from which powerful teachings of ethics and justice can be drawn (Saikal, 2003). The Qur’an states, “0 ye who believe, be upright for god, witness injustice, and let not hatred of a people cause you to be unjust. Be just, that is closer to piety” (Ali, 1996), illustrating that Islam is a religion that like Christianity places a focus on justice and respect for others.
These common stereotypes and misunderstandings were seen in a you tube publication “What do BC students know about Islam?” in which students were asked a set of questions and common stereotypical answers surrounding the middle east and the wearing of the hijab were given. Similar results were found when a small word association task was completed using Australian university students results indicated these stereotypes were clearly held within the Australian educated community
The formation of Stereotypes
These stereotypes whilst appearing to have developed post September 11 actually trace back prior to 1912 when Malay pearlers and Afghans were depicted as unclean and a threat to white women (Aly, 2007). In the 1970s Muslim migrants were seen as sexist, violent and backward with an association between Islam and extremism also forming (Mansouri, 2005, Aly, 2007). In Australia in the 1980s and 1990s the media shed a negative light on the religion with a focus on genital mutilation in Africa, honour killings, human rights and the role of women in Islam. These conceptions greatly escalated during the gulf war. Since these times the Islamic religion has become a marker of identity in the media (Aly, 2007).
In general stereotypes stem from factors such as prejudice, competition, ignorance, oppression and heuristics (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008, Carr, 2003). Social categorisation (us/them mentality), group think, social perception and social learning theory can all be implicated in the formation of the Muslim stereotype (Carr, 2003) (See Figure 1.).
The Australian media can be seen as an influential social agent with the poetential to shape community perceptions. It has a particular impact on minority groups by exposing them to pressures by implying that they embody ‘alien’ characteristics which are not concurrent with Australian values (Akbarazadeh &Smith, 2005). The Language used by the media often negatively frame stories (e.g. ‘Islamic terrorism’, ‘Muslim fanatics’) to be representative of all Muslims. This use of language has contributed to the formation of the stereotype that is commonly held within the Australian community (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005).
How Stereotypes are maintained
Within Australia Muslim stereotypes are maintained primarily through the portrayal in the media and by the current governments stance, hence creating a group think scenario which leads to social categorisation (Mansouri, 2005). The concpet of the ‘arab other’ can be seen as implicit in contemporary Australian political discourse and media representations (Poynting, et al, 2004). Examples in which these notions have been seen include the Tampa boat crisis and the attempted banning of headscarves in Australian schools (Aly, 2007). The governments representation of asylum seekers and the way in which the media focuses on by how the asylum seekers arrive instead of what the asylum seekers are actually fleeing from also contribute to the misconceptions ( Poynting, et al, 2004). The Australian government appears to have blurred the line between middle east, Muslim and terrorist which heavily impact the way in which Muslims (and those of Middle Eastern appearance) are viewed (Mansouri, 2005).
In today’s society a major component in the development and transmission of stereotypes is the mass media (Stangor & Schaller, 1996). In particular the way in which use of ‘Islam’ and‘Muslim’ have been used as adjectives in reports implies that Islam sanctions terrorism (Akbarazadeh & Smith, 2005). In a 2005 study by Arbarazadeh and Smith the Herald Sun was found to have recurrent stereotyping and negative reporting on topics involving Muslims. This negative theme was apparent in a quarter of articles reviewed. This study illustrates that mainstream media is in fact engaging in maintaining the stereotype of Muslim in the Australian society by often using religion as a primary marker of identity (Aly, 2007).
Breaking down Stereotypes
Changing the stereotype associated with Muslims and the Islamic faith requires the Australian community to acknowledge personal and media bias and stigmas. A richer understanding of the diversity of Muslims requires an enhanced education with an emphasis on the west engaging with the Muslims who live in their midst (Yasmeen, 2005). The tragedy that was September 11 poses challenges to both the West and followers of Islam and an understanding based on common human values should derive from such a situation, here in lies the challenge (Saikal, 2003). A multicultural perspective is required if a true understanding of other cultures is to develop (Baron, Byrne & Branscombe, 2006).
Allport’s contact hypothesis offers a theory for how the stereotype could be changed with the position that regular interaction between opposing or different groups ( if conducted under favourable conditions) reduces prejudice and feelings of extreme difference (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). In conjunction with this theory the notion of jigsaw classrooms also holds relevance as this cooperative learning technique has also shown to reduce feelings of prejudice (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Islamic leader Imam Faizal Abdual Rauf a keen promotor of interfaith dialogue stated that Australia has the opportunity to denounce these stereotypes due to its multicultural nature (ABC, 2005).
Saturday, September 1, 2007
Attempts to upload my concept map
These come out small but when you click on it, it should enlarge, let me know if it doesnt =)
Friday, August 31, 2007
MY Results
Hey everyone over the last few days I sent out a list of words and did a bit of my own research when it comes to looking at stereotypes of Muslim people. In the list of words I had 4 that i was particuarly interested in (listed below with results). I tried to insert a table with my results but it wouldn,t let me so hopefully you can make sense of the numbers below. Typical stereotypical responses are also included. The first number listed is the number of neutral responses and the second the words associated with the stereotype.
There are obvious limitations to my figures as i just sent it out to email contacts and I had a few responses on my blog. My responses do indicate that there are stereotypes held in the community about Islam however these are also based on my personal opinion of what constitutes a stereotype. Thought you might be interested in the results anyway.
happy Blogging =)
Terrorism 21 , 3 - eg. Arab, Muslims
Muslim 13 , 11 - eg. strict, terrorist, hijab
Islam 15 , 9 - eg. terrorism, middle east, extreme
Christian 22 , 2 - eg. crazy, angry
There are obvious limitations to my figures as i just sent it out to email contacts and I had a few responses on my blog. My responses do indicate that there are stereotypes held in the community about Islam however these are also based on my personal opinion of what constitutes a stereotype. Thought you might be interested in the results anyway.
happy Blogging =)
Terrorism 21 , 3 - eg. Arab, Muslims
Muslim 13 , 11 - eg. strict, terrorist, hijab
Islam 15 , 9 - eg. terrorism, middle east, extreme
Christian 22 , 2 - eg. crazy, angry
Thursday, August 30, 2007
Word Association- HAVE UR SAY!!
I have recently sent out the following list of words to my email contacts for some research of my own. The concept is word association and all you have to do is write down the first word you think of when you look at each word. Add your responses to my comments as I am really interested to see what people come up with. If you are really keen with the word association technique you can try some more on this link.
Thanks for your help !!
Food
Baby
Terrorism
Computer
Laughter
Muslim
Jumper
Animals
Chrisitan
Community
Islam
Enjoyment
Halal
Thanks for your help !!
Food
Baby
Terrorism
Computer
Laughter
Muslim
Jumper
Animals
Chrisitan
Community
Islam
Enjoyment
Halal
Tuesday, August 28, 2007
Can you hear me???
Just as an aside and something that amused me yesterday....I was waiting in line to buy some chocolate to get me through my afternoon classes when I came across what I realised is a common situation. A student of asian background was attempting to make a purchase and use his credit card, something wasn't working with it and from my observation he wasn't quiet understanding the shop attendant. The attendant then proceeded to raise her voice (to a near yelling level) repeating the same phrase as if somehow the new level of her voice would help him to understand and that it wouldn't be an issue if the student didn't have the needed english comprehension. I laughed to myself and thought about just how many times I have seen this in our community. It appears if someone doesn't understand you when communicating all you need to do is raise your voice and magically they will totally get the point, problem fixed ;)
In relation to social Psych I think this demonstrates a good example of issues in communication across cultures and once again the stereotype and mindset that people often have when communicating with those of a different background. I can't help but wonder what the student was thinking about this woman who contined to repeat the same thing repeatedly raising her voice!
Monday, August 27, 2007
Time to gather ideas...
Over the first half of semester i have worked on my blog looking at stereotypes and really enjoyed lots of the research i have done. I have looked at some really interesting sources some that i have listed on my page and others that i will discuss in my final work on the topic. As time comes to a close for this blog i thought I would give a brief over view of my question and where I think ( at this stage) I am going to go with the question. Ironically as I begin to compile my thoughts Muslims around the world begin to prepare for Ramadam ( that will begin approx 12th Sept) which for me confirms that i have choosen the right topic and hope that in some way my words will touch at least some who have such a negative view of such a tolerant religion.
Obviously my minority group within the Australian community is going to be those of Muslim Faith. Whilst there has been comments around whether this is a minority I believe that despite its rapid growth within our community it currently can still be viewed as a minority group ( This does however seem hard to believe if you have ever seen just how many people attend the Yarralumla Mosque for friday prayers =) This being said i will describe the sterotype and views that are held about followers of Islam and the common expectantions and views that those in society tend to have. In discussing why this sterotype exists i will predominately focus on current times ( after sept 11) touching however on past views of the religion. In discussing how the sterotype is maintained I will explain factors i think contribute whilst heavily relying on my sources. How the sterotype could be changed for me centers around education and the promotion of intercultural dialogue and an understanding of the faith which I believe can be achieved by further understanding the principles of Islam.
The mosque pictured is in Putra Jaya in Malaysia. I recently visited this mosque and was amazed at its beauty and architecture.
Image from http://travel.u.nu/pic/my/5346.jpg
Wednesday, August 22, 2007
More on Stereotypes...
Hey everyone,
I've been doing some more research for my assignment and I have watched a few more dvds and read some articles and Iam finding some good information ( more on these later). I found that the lecture that Prof. Mak gave today was really useful and she brought up many interesting points. Its funny when you think about it, most of us would say that we dont hold any prejudice and dont stereotype people from other groups but doing this assignment I have realised just how much these things happen daily. I have myself becomes more aware of the prejudices I have and I think that if it wasn't for my connection to people who believe in Islam than maybe I would have incorrect thoughts and perceptions here aswell. A lot of stereotypes and prejudices stem from a lack of understanding and i think that this is the case with Islam.
I was thinking about this on a personal level. When i travelled to America at the begining of the year I was travelling in a car with my friend and her American family going to visit the beach for the wkn. We were sorting through her parents Cd's and someone suggested Cat Stevens, we put that on and I was shocked when the father ( a supposed devout Christian and since I myself am a christian i am aware that a lot of the teachings in this religion promote tolerance and treating your neighbour as you wish to be treated) replied "I can't believe we are listening to a muslim" . Now while I am not personally a muslim I was personally offended and angered on behalf of my boyfriend and his family and for all muslims. That bothered me enough to have a different opinion of the man for the rest of my trip. I cant even imagine how it must feel for people who are forced to deal with these kinds of comments and prejudice daily. I know that the American people suffered a terrible event but I was left thinking what did Cat Stevens have to do with it???? These are the types of comments that can make the world such a bad place full of hatred and misunderstanding.
Studying topics such as this really does make you stop and think about the type of cognitive processes people must have when it comes to developing these stereotypes and the "mental shortcuts" that they have formed (as professor Mak spoke of).
Im also posting a Youtube video which i think shows my point well about the lack of general knowledge when it comes to Islam...Take a look and see if you know the answers to the questions posed ...
Thanks !!!
I've been doing some more research for my assignment and I have watched a few more dvds and read some articles and Iam finding some good information ( more on these later). I found that the lecture that Prof. Mak gave today was really useful and she brought up many interesting points. Its funny when you think about it, most of us would say that we dont hold any prejudice and dont stereotype people from other groups but doing this assignment I have realised just how much these things happen daily. I have myself becomes more aware of the prejudices I have and I think that if it wasn't for my connection to people who believe in Islam than maybe I would have incorrect thoughts and perceptions here aswell. A lot of stereotypes and prejudices stem from a lack of understanding and i think that this is the case with Islam.
I was thinking about this on a personal level. When i travelled to America at the begining of the year I was travelling in a car with my friend and her American family going to visit the beach for the wkn. We were sorting through her parents Cd's and someone suggested Cat Stevens, we put that on and I was shocked when the father ( a supposed devout Christian and since I myself am a christian i am aware that a lot of the teachings in this religion promote tolerance and treating your neighbour as you wish to be treated) replied "I can't believe we are listening to a muslim" . Now while I am not personally a muslim I was personally offended and angered on behalf of my boyfriend and his family and for all muslims. That bothered me enough to have a different opinion of the man for the rest of my trip. I cant even imagine how it must feel for people who are forced to deal with these kinds of comments and prejudice daily. I know that the American people suffered a terrible event but I was left thinking what did Cat Stevens have to do with it???? These are the types of comments that can make the world such a bad place full of hatred and misunderstanding.
Studying topics such as this really does make you stop and think about the type of cognitive processes people must have when it comes to developing these stereotypes and the "mental shortcuts" that they have formed (as professor Mak spoke of).
Im also posting a Youtube video which i think shows my point well about the lack of general knowledge when it comes to Islam...Take a look and see if you know the answers to the questions posed ...
Thanks !!!
Monday, August 13, 2007
Compass : The peacemaker
I have been doing more research for my blog and this week watched a copy of an old Compass episode titled "The Peacemaker". The program interviewed a man by the name of Imam Faizal Abdual Rauf, a muslim leader who practices in America in New York, not too far from where the terrorist attacks of September 11 took place. The Imam had a lot of interesting points to make and has become known as a 'bridge figure' between the west and Islam as he promotes interfaith dialogue and holds an annual event known as Cordoba in where people from different faiths (Muslims, Jews and Christians) come together and celebrate.
When watching the show i began to think of how in many ways he defys all the stereotypes that many people would have about what a muslim leader would be like. He speaks out about terrorism, encourages this union between faiths and says that Australia can show the world a lot in this area when looking at our diverse multicultural society.
The Imam goes on to talk about how in many cases the media only reports the negative events giving an example of the International Islam Conference in which muslim leaders from over the world condemed terrorism and extremists. I thought about this for a while and thought just how true this is, we are continually reminded of negatives and shown stories of tragedy but do we hear the whole story? Watching the news of an evening you dont hear of the positives that are going on within the muslim community, there definitely appears to be a strong focus on the negative events that such a small minority are involved in.
The Imam goes on to talk about how in many cases the media only reports the negative events giving an example of the International Islam Conference in which muslim leaders from over the world condemed terrorism and extremists. I thought about this for a while and thought just how true this is, we are continually reminded of negatives and shown stories of tragedy but do we hear the whole story? Watching the news of an evening you dont hear of the positives that are going on within the muslim community, there definitely appears to be a strong focus on the negative events that such a small minority are involved in.
I encourage you to read the transcript available at http://www.abc.net.au/compass/s1535210.htm or borrow the copy of the program from the Uni Library ( I will post the details) . It shows another side of the story and I think breaks a lot of the stereotypes associated with this religion.
Any thoughts ??
Image from: http://www.thedohadebates.com/files/images/bios_pic_02_Faisal.gif
Wednesday, August 8, 2007
Misconceptions of the veil
Whilst wasting time this morning and procrastinating about uni work (sound familiar???) I fortunately came across a segment on one of the morning shows that had a lot of significance to my blog topic. As I noted in my last post I am focusing on the stereotypes of Muslims and the Islamic faith within our community. This morning on the 9am show with David and Kim on Channel 10 I was really interested to see an interview that centred around this exact topic. A lady by the name of Janine Evans was on the program discussing the misconceptions people have about the faith and the negative stigmas that are often placed on those who choose to wear the veil or hi jab as it is also known.
Janine went on to speak of misunderstanding, fear and patronising comments that she finds are often associated with the veil and how since the terrorist attacks of September 11 those who wear the veil and fit the stereotypes that people have of Muslim people have been the victims of severe criticism, racism and daily abuse.
One of the presenters then questioned her on the use of the veil as a way of oppressing women and I think that Janine made a good comment when she said that it is people who oppress people not religions.
Many people do not understand the significance and choice associated in the wearing of the veil and I have noticed this recently in my own personal experience. My boyfriend and his family are Muslim and when discussing my topic recently with friends they were suprised to hear this and to hear that many of the women in the family do not wear a scarf. When hearing their suprise it demonstrated to me that so many people whether consciously or not have these stereotypes in built. Many expect muslims to look Arabic, the women to wear the scarf ( which is not compulsory, it is a choice) and in recent times sadly people expect that all muslims are interested in extremist sects that promote terrorism.
I think that many people would be suprised at how wrong these ideas are and at how diverse the Muslim population is.
A quick google on the net retrieves thousands of links to articles and debates on this topic and the discussion of the veil this morning made me consider devoting part of my first blog to it and the stereotypes associated. There are a lot of issues that i can deal with do I might further research this area.
Thankyou to the comments that people have left from my last post, please keep them coming, i am very interested in what you have to say !!
I am also interested in hearing peoples opinions on the wearing of veils in schools. A short while back this was a hot topic within the media and I am interested to hear if you see any problems with those who choose to wear a veil to school (or a work place) ???
Sunday, August 5, 2007
First Blog Assignment
After the initial fear of blogging for an assignment subsided I looked through the topics and had a quick read of what everyone had had to say so far. I liked a number of topics but think I have come up with something that will not only be of interest to me but will also have some personal signifigance.
I am currently thinking of writting my topic on stereotypes and looking into the stereotypes of the Muslim community within Australia. I am interested in examining how much the media influences peoples opinions here and whether ideas and judgements that we as a community have formed have any real substance or if they have been built out of a lack of understanding and misinterpreted knowledge. To start of I thought I would add a link to an article on the BBC which very basically sets out some beliefs and facts of Islam. I stress that they are basic but I thought that it was a good place to start.
I'm very interested in others opinions on the topic and if you feel if your own feelings and possible stereotypes of the Islamic population have been affected by world events or media depictations.
Monday, July 30, 2007
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
